
Glass _."?* 
Book _ 
Copyright xN°_._ J i 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



HOW TO STUDY 
LITERATURE 



A GUIDE TO THE INTENSIVE STUDY 
OF LITERARY MASTERPIECES 



BY 



BENJAMIN A. HEYDRICK, A.B. (Harv.) 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
MILLERSVILLE, PA. 






HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 
31-33-35 West 15TH Street, New York City 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRE88, 

— «o Cop»fari Reobvbd 

OCT, fg 1902 

CnpvwOHT ewthy 
C«.AS3 Cfc^*Xa Ho. 






i^o^ 



Copyright, 1901, igo2, 
By BENJAMIN A. HEYDRICK. 



PREFACE 

This book is intended to aid in the study of litera- 
ture. It is generally conceded that the best method is 
to take up certain literary masterpieces. But how shall 
a masterpiece be studied ? A play of Shakespeare's is 
before the class. The text-book is provided with an 
introduction and notes. The introduction gives the 
date and the sources of the play ; the notes explain 
difficult words and allusions. It is easy to assign les- 
sons on this basis, and very easy to set examinations 
on it. Yet a class may know introduction and notes 
thoroughly, and still be far from appreciating or even 
understanding the play as a piece of literature. For 
the introduction deals with facts of literary history ; 
the notes with philology, grammar, and manners and 
customs of the time. This information is valuable, it 
is indispensable, but it is, after all, only a means to an 
end, and that end is the appreciation and enjoyment of 
a literary masterpiece. 

The aim of this manual is to facilitate the sys- 
tematic, careful, and appreciative study of literature 
as literature. It concentrates attention upon the text 
itself, not upon editorial explanation or comment. It 



vi Preface 

furnishes means by which the student may ascertain 
for himself the chief characteristics of the book studied. 
It acquaints him with the fundamental principles of 
literary construction, and asks him to decide for him- 
self how far these principles have been observed. Not 
to present ready-made opinions for his acceptance, but 
to teach him to see for himself and to judge for himself 
is the aim throughout. 

Further, each book is treated as a type, a representa- 
tive of a class, so that the study of a few books may 
open the way to the appreciation of many. The sug- 
gestions for comparative study, the collateral reading 
recommended, all have this object in view, that through 
the medium of a few volumes the student may gain an 
outlook upon the world of literature. 

Outlines are given for the study of six literary types : 
in poetry, the epic, lyric, and drama ; in prose, fiction, 
the essay, and the oration. These classes include 
practically all the books prescribed for the college 
entrance examinations and those studied in the first 
years of college work. In most secondary schools the 
study of literature is pursued for several years, three 
or four classics being taken up each year. This 
manual is not intended to supplant any of the texts 
used, but to supplement them, to be used with them 
as a guide. 

The lists of critical terms given are intended to aid 
the student to say exactly what he means. It is often 



Preface vii 

the case that a beginner feels the beauty or power of a 
masterpiece as fully as an older reader, but, lacking 
words to express himself, he falls back upon a general 
term like "fine," which may mean any one of twenty 
things. Yet if the terms are at hand, he can select 
the one he wants ; he understands the meaning of the 
words, but they are not a part of his working vocabu- 
lary. To supply this lack, carefully selected lists of 
the commoner critical terms have been provided. 

It is not intended that the outlines shall be followed 
rigidly in every detail. With a certain poem noted for 
the beauty and variety of its imagery, that section of 
the outline will be emphasized, the one on character- 
study, perhaps, abridged. On the other hand, if a 
class is already able to distinguish the figures of speech, 
and the poem studied is not noteworthy in this respect, 
that section of the outline may be omitted. This is, 
perhaps, only saying that this book does not pretend 
to take the place of the intelligent teacher. 

B. A. H. 

MlLLERSVILLE, PA. 



KEY TO PUBLISHERS REFERRED TO IN 
THIS VOLUME 



Am. Bk. Co American Book Company 

Ginn ....... Ginn and Company 

Harpers ....... Harper and Brothers 

Houghton .... Houghton^ Mifflin and Company 

B. F. Johnson . . . B. F. Johnson Publishing Company 

Lippincott J. B. Lippincott Company 

Lovell A. Lovell and Company 

Macmillan The Macmillan Company 

Putnams G. P. Putnam's Sons 

Scribners ....... Charles Scribner's Sons 



CONTENTS 



Preface 



PART I 

Nature and Classes of Literature . . . . i 

Outlines for Study: 

Narrative Poetry ....... 5 

Lyric Poetry 19 

Dramatic Poetry 28 

Fiction 40 



The Essay . 
The Oration 



PART II 

Specimen Studies: 

Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" . 

Tennyson's "Bugle Song" . 

Shakspere's "Hamlet" 

George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 

Macaulay's Essay on Samuel Johnson 

Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration 



Appendix A. Figures of Speech 
Appendix B. Versification 



53 
65 



73 
79 
81 
92 
98 
103 

108 
in 



NATURE AND CLASSES OF LITERA- 
TURE 

Literature, in the broadest sense, includes all written or 
printed books. Yet one would hardly speak of an arith- 
metic as a work of literature. A play of Shakspere's, 
even though bound in paper covers, is literature, while a 
city directory, bound in leather, is not. It is necessary 
to distinguish two classes of books : those which aim 
merely to give information, and those which move us by 
their beauty or their power. Books of the latter class are 
called literature. The arithmetic and other text-books, 
the directory, encyclopaedia, and other reference works, 
are books to which we go to find out facts. They are 
not literature, in the narrower sense of the word. But 
a novel we read not for facts, but because it is interest- 
ing : it holds us by its beauty or power, and therefore it 
is literature. 

As literature appears under various forms, it is divided 
into several classes. The most obvious division is that 
of poetry and prose. To define poetry is a task which 
has puzzled the poets themselves. It is possible, how- 



2 Nature and Classes of Literature 

ever, to point out some of the essential differences be- 
tween poetry and prose. In the first place, they differ 
in form. Poetry is arranged in short lines ; these lines 
usually rime, 1 and, further, the accented syllables are so 
arranged as to form a regular rhythm : they can be read 
in a sing-song way. This regular rhythm is called metre. 
But form alone is not sufficient. 



Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November. 



y^w***- 



That couplet has the form of poetry ; it has rime and 
rhythm, but it is not poetry, it is not even literature. 
The lines merely help one to remember facts : there is 
neither beauty nor power in them. Now take two lines 
of true poetry : 

Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 

— Romeo and Juliet. 

Here is not only form, but beauty. What is the fact 
told in these lines? That it is morning. That is the 
prose way of saying it. But the poet sees things imagi- 
natively : to him the paling stars are the dying candles 
of night, and day is a living being, merry and eager. 

1 Formerly, but less correctly, spelled rhyme. See the Century, 
Standard, or International Dictionary. 



Nature and Classes of Literature 3 

Instead of stating a plain fact, he appeals to our imagi- 
nation with pictures. Poetry, then, differs from prose 
in being more imaginative. 

Again, take a familiar line from Gray's " Elegy " : 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

There is one word in that line, "lea," that would not 
be used in prose. Nor would we find " o'er " for "over." 
Poetry, then, has a slightly different vocabulary from 
prose. 

To sum up, poetry differs from prose in possessing metre 
and usually rime, in using a slightly different vocabulary, 
and — most important of all — in being more imaginative. 

Poetry is divided into classes, of which the chief ones 
are narrative, lyric, and dramatic. Narrative poetry is 
defined by its name ; it is usually story-telling poetry, 
dealing with acts and events. If these events are of a 
lofty nature, and the poem extends to a considerable 
length, such as Homer's Iliad, it is called an epic. If 
the poem is short and spirited, such as Longfellow's 
" Skeleton in Armor," it is called a ballad. 

In narrative poetry the writer relates the deeds of 
other men. But if a poet writes of himself, telling his 
own thoughts and feelings, and thus dealing with emo- 
tions instead of action, the result is lyric poetry. Lyric 
poetry may be described as feeling expressed in musical 



4 Nature and Classes of Literature 

words. This feeling may be patriotic, as in our national 
hymn ; it may be a feeling of grief, of love, of delight 
in the beauty of nature ; the essential thing is that the 
writer puts his own feelings into verse. 

Dramatic poetry is that which is written to be acted. 
It is like narrative poetry in that it deals with acts and 
events. 

In a similar way prose is divided into certain general 
classes. If an author tells of the deeds of other men, he 
is writing history, or possibly a historical novel. If the 
characters are wholly imaginary, he is writing fiction. If 
he presents his own opinions and judgments in prose, 
the result is an essay. And finally, if what he writes is 
intended, not to be read, but to be spoken — -just as a 
drama is written to be acted — we have oratory. These 
six classes, narrative, lyric, and dramatic poetry, fiction, 
the essay, and the oration, include nearly all books that 
come within the definition of literature. 

For a discussion of literature in general, with helpful 
suggestions as to what and how to read, see Ruskin's 
Sesame and Lilies, Part I ; Frederic Harrison's The 
Choice of Books (Macmillan) ; Emerson's essay on 
"Books," in Society and Solitude; James Baldwin's 
Book- Love?- (McClurg) and Van Dyke's Counsel upon 
the Reading of Books (Houghton). 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF NARRA- 
TIVE POETRY 



(See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 73) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

The first step in the study of a literary work of any 
kind is to gain an idea of it as a whole. This can best be 
done by a single rapid reading, at a sitting, if possible. 
Do not stop to look up words nor to refer to the notes ; 
you can understand enough of the work to gain a general 
idea of it. This done, the book should be read a second 
time, more carefully, in connection with the notes. These 
notes are not to be memorized ; they are intended merely 
to help one to understand the text. After the work has 
been read in this way, take up the questions in the outline 
and answer them, with reference to the text when neces- 
sary. This mastery of subject-matter, the comprehension 
of the work as a whole, must precede any study of parts 
or of particular characteristics. 
5 



6 Narrative Poetry 

II. Classification 

The chief classes of narrative poetry are : 

(a) The Epic, a long poem treating a heroic theme in 
a dignified style, as Paradise Lost. 

(b) The Metrical Romance, a long story in verse, less 
lofty in theme and style than the Epic ; often a love- 
story. Examples : Tennyson's Princess ; Scott's Mar- 
mion. 

(c) The Metrical Tale, resembling the Metrical Ro- 
mance, but briefer ; sometimes of a humorous nature. 
Examples : Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ; Tennyson's 
"Enoch Arden"; Burns's "Tarn O' Shanter." 

(d) The Ballad, a short and spirited narrative poem 
in a simple style. Examples : Longfellow's " Wreck of 
the Hesperus"; Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner." 

(e) The Descriptive Poem. This deals with objects 
instead of events. There are often characters in it as in 
a tale, but there, is little or no action. Example, Gold- 
smith's " Deserted Village." If the poem deals with rural 
life, it is called a Pastoral. Examples : Burns's " Cotter's 
Saturday Night," and Whittier's " Snow-Bound." 

(/) The Allegory, a poem aiming to teach a lesson, 
in which the characters and events have a double signifi- 
cance. Examples : Spenser's Faerie Queene, and Dry- 
den's "Absalom and Achitophel." 



Narrative Poetry 7 

(g) The Mock-Epic, or mock-heroic poem, a form of 
parody in which the grand style of Epic poetry is applied 
to events of a trivial nature. Example, Pope's "Rape 
of the Lock." 

Sometimes a poem exhibits characteristics of more than 
one of these classes. Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" 
is a tale, yet it contains so much description that Sted- 
man calls it a landscape poem. An allegory may be an 
epic, as Dante's Divine Comedy, or may be a metrical 
romance, as The Faerie Queene. 

To which of the foregoing classes does the poem 
studied belong ? 

III. Purpose 

A narrative poem may be written merely to entertain 
with an interesting and beautifully told story; it may 
elevate the mind by telling of heroic deeds ; it may set 
forth the author's opinions upon some important subject ; 
it may be written to enforce a moral, or to teach a spir- 
itual truth. 

(a) What purpose or purposes does this poem serve ? 

{b) If the poem aims to set forth the author's beliefs, 
or to teach a lesson of any kind, state this purpose in your 
own words. 

(c) Is this purpose definitely stated, or merely im- 
plied? If stated, where? 



8 Narrative Poetry 

IV. Plot 

(a) Is the story perfectly clear, or are there parts 
that you did not understand at the first reading? 
Where? 

(b) Considered simply as a story, is it interesting? Is 
there any place where the interest flags ? 

(V) The climax of a narrative is the place where the 
interest is at the highest pitch. Where is the climax here ? 

(d) Is the story probable, as a whole? Are any of the 
incidents improbable ? If so, does this improbability 
make the poem less enjoyable? 

(<?) Has it unity ? A plot has unity when it deals with 
a single event, or with a series of events so closely related 
that they form one story. 

(/) An episode is an incident told at some length, per- 
haps several pages, which does not have any direct con- 
nection with the main story. In giving an outline of the 
plot, episodes would be omitted. They are most frequent 
in Epic poetry. Are there any episodes here ? Do they 
affect the unity of the poem? What do they add, or 
why were they introduced at all ? 

(g) Is the plot original? If borrowed, what was the 
source? If possible, read the original story. Did the 
writer add to this, or alter it ? What was the purpose of 
the changes? 



Narrative Poetry 9 

V. Characters 

(a) Are there many? i.e. many mentioned byname? 
Are they clearly distinguished, or do the minor characters 
talk and act about alike ? 

(b) Lifelike ? Do they stand out in your mind as real 
people ? Are they vividly drawn ? Can you see them ? 

(c) Is there a hero ? What are the chief traits of his 
character ? 

(d) Is there a heroine? What are her chief charac- 
teristics ? 

(e) Do men or women occupy the chief place in the 
poem ? 

(/) Are there any supernatural characters, — ghosts, 
angels, etc. ? Is their use effective ? 

Characters may be stationary or developing. If 
stationary, they may suffer changes in fortune, etc., but 
their natures remain the same. If developing, the ex- 
periences they go through change their characters, so that 
they become more serious, more tolerant, more generous, 
etc., than at the beginning. 

(g) Are the characters stationary or developing? If 
developing, do you think the experiences they go 
through are adequate to produce such changes ? 



10 Narrative Poetry 

VI. Setting 

(a) Where are the events told supposed to occur ? At 
what time in history, approximately? 

(b) Are the time and place or places definitely stated, 
or do you infer them from allusions ? 

{/) Is there much description in the poem ? Are the 
descriptions detailed, or does the author usually mention 
only one or two particulars about a scene or an object ? 
Point out a description of each kind. 

(d) Is there much description of nature? Select the 
best description of a landscape, a sunrise or a sunset, a 
bird or an animal. Are the descriptions of nature accu- 
rate ? Does the author make them more vivid by per- 
sonifying objects, speaking of " hungry waves," " timid 
flowers," etc.? 

(<?) Does the author introduce objects, expressions, 
customs, or details of costume peculiar to the place de- 
scribed ? This is called local color. 

(/) Are the descriptive passages kept secondary to the 
story, or are there places where the author seems more 
interested in description than anything else, giving more 
than necessary? 

(g) Study carefully several of the longer descriptions 
to answer the following questions : 

Does the author usually give the form of objects ? The 
color? 



Narrative Poetry 11 

Does he use general terms, as calling the sky " red/' or 
is he specific, as calling it "a deep crimson "? 

Does he usually mention sounds in his descriptions ? 
Odors ? 

Is there usually motion in his pictures ? 

Quote passages to illustrate answers. 

(h) Does the author's strength lie chiefly in narration, 
in description, or in character drawing ? 

VII. Contrast 
Contrast is one of the most effective devices in art. It 
may be in the plot, as where a defeat is closely followed 
by a victory ; or in character, two persons being intro- 
duced, one just the opposite of the other in certain re- 
spects ; or there may be a contrast between the same 
person's actions on different occasions ; there may be 
contrast in the descriptions; and there may be contrast 
in the mood or tone of the poem, as where a tragic pas- 
sage is followed by one in a lighter or even a humorous 
vein. Point out, if possible, an example of each. Note 
any other ways in which contrast is used. 

VIII. Style 
A. Style in General 

i. Are there pathetic passages? Where? Is there 
humor in the poem ? Where ? Is the humor quiet or 
broad ? 



12 Narrative Poetry 

2. Select from the following list two or three terms that 
best describe the style of the whole poem. If none of 
these words apply, suggest others. 

Clear, direct, concise ; 
Obscure, tedious, verbose ; 
Fresh, natural; 
Awkward, stiff, harsh ; 
Melodious, musical, sonorous. 

3. Are there any parts of the poem you would de- 
scribe as : 

Graphic, animated ? 
Earnest, dignified, grand, sublime ? 
Strong, intense, impassioned ? 
Delicate, brilliant ? 

Give reference to passages where found. 

B. Figures of Speech 

Select several pages for careful study to answer the 
questions given below. For definitions and examples of 
figures of speech, see Appendix A, p. 108. 

1. Is the poem notable for a profusion of figures of 
speech ? Which kind of figure is most common ? 

2. Does the author use the simile ? the metaphor ? 
personification ? metonymy ? Is the Homeric simile 
found ? Give examples of each. 



Narrative Poetry 13 

3. Are many of the figures new, or are they familiar, 
like "red as a rose," "black as night," etc. ? Give ex- 
amples of original figures, if found. 

C. Diction 

1. Select the two or three terms from this list, or of 
your own choosing, that best describe the language of the 
poem : 

Simple, colloquial, idiomatic ; 

Elevated, polished, ornate (over-ornamented) ; 

Smooth, strong, terse, elliptical. 

2. Is the language different from that of prose ? 
Markedly so ? Give examples of poetic diction, — ex- 
pressions peculiar to poetry, as " oft " for " often," "vasty 
deep " for "ocean," etc. 

3. Are there examples of Biblical expressions ? 

IX. Metre 

(a) What is the metre of the poem ? (See Appendix 
B, p. in.) The metre of the great Epic in English is 
iambic pentameter ; other narrative poetry is sometimes 
written in this metre, but more frequently in stanzas. 

(b) Are there any variations from the normal metre, 
such as substitution of other feet, or changes in the stanza- 
form ? (For variations in iambic pentameter, see Dra- 



14 Narrative Poetry 

matic Poetry, Sec. VIII, p. 35.) What is the purpose of 
these changes? 

(c) Are any parts of the poem written in an entirely 
different metre, as the lyrics in The Princess ? What 
metre is used here ? Why is the new form introduced ? 

(d) Write out the scansion of twenty lines. 

X. Characteristics of Author 

With very few exceptions, authors put their own per- 
sonality into their works, so that it is possible to infer from 
any book some of the characteristics of the man who wrote 
it. In answering the questions below, do not expect to 
find indications of all or of many of the characteristics 
enumerated. Some will probably be apparent at once ; 
others will disclose themselves after a little study. 

(a) Judging from the book alone, would you infer that 
the author was : . 

Earnest, sympathetic, broad-minded, philanthropic ? 
Flippant, cynical, prejudiced, misanthropic ? 
Cheerful, optimistic? or grave, melancholy, pessi- 
mistic ? 
Independent, original, a reformer ? 
Positive in his opinions ? 
Conventional, conservative ? 
A man of high ideals ? patriotic ? devout ? 



Narrative Poetry 15 

In each case tell upon what passages you base your 
reply. 

(p) Do his writings indicate that he possessed : 

A vivid imagination ? 
A keen sense of humor ? 

A philosophical turn of mind, shown in a tendency to 
generalize, or to seek for causes ? 

(c) Was he a man who had evidently had a wide ex- 
perience of life ? 

A man of much learning, scholarship ? 

A man of broad culture, familiar with music, painting, 

literature, etc. ? 
A lover of nature ? 
"What were his favorite books ? 

(d) Apart from his fame as an author, would you like 
to know him ? To have him for a friend ? 

(<?) Write a theme upon the character of the author as 
shown in his works, quoting passages to illustrate your 
points. 

XI. Memory Passages 

(a) What do you consider the finest parts of the 
poem? Select a passage of fifteen or twenty lines and 
memorize it. 

(b) Are there single lines or couplets, notable for their 



16 Narrative Poetry 

beauty or power, which may serve as quotations ? Select 
and memorize some of these. 

XII. Life of Author 

{a) Read a brief biography of the author. For British 
authors, the " Dictionary of National Biography " is the 
standard work of reference. Fuller treatment is given in 
the volumes of the English Men of Letters series (Har- 
pers), and the Great Writers series (W. Scott). For 
American authors, consult the American Men of Letters 
series (Houghton). If possible, get a volume of his let- 
ters and read them : the true nature of a man usually 
comes out in his letters. 

(b) What circumstances in his life seem to have influ- 
enced his literary work ? 

(c) Compare the characteristics of the man as given in 
his biography with your inferences drawn from his works. 

XIII. Critical Opinion 1 

(a) Read several of the best criticisms of this poem. 
Compare their statements with the results obtained by 
your study under Sections IV, V, VI, and VIII. 

(b) Consult a standard history of literature to ascertain 
the position of this author, how he ranks with others of his 

1 Sections XIV and XV are intended for advanced classes. 



Narrative Poetry 17 

age, and how this poem compares with other poems of the 
same class. Books that will be useful here are, for Eng- 
lish literature, Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature (Mac- 
millan), Gosse's Eighteenth Century Literature (Macmil- 
lan), Perry's Eighteenth Century Literature (Harpers), 
Stedman's Victorian Poets (Houghton), Saintsbury's Nine- 
teenth Century Literature (Macmillan). For American 
literature, consult Stedman's Poets of America (Houghton), 
Richardson's American Literature (Putnam), Barrett 
Wendell's Literary History of America (Scribners). 

XIV. Comparative Study 

Choose another narrative poem of the same class, if 
possible one already studied or read, and run over it to 
compare it with this one in the chief points of the outline. 
Note particularly points in which there is a marked differ- 
ence. Is this due to : the time in which the authors wrote ? 
their subjects ? or are the differences due to the men 
themselves ? The comparison of the two poems might 
be made the subject of a theme. 

XV. Collateral Reading 

(a) Epic Poetry. Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise 
Regained stand alone in English as examples of the great 
Epic. The Epic poems of other literatures are accessible 



18 Narrative Poetry 

in translations. Homer's Iliad has been translated in verse 
by Pope, Chapman, Lord Derby, and Bryant ; Vergil's 
sEneid by Dryden and by Conington ; Dante's Divine 
Comedy by Gary, by Longfellow, and by Norton. 

(^) Other Forms of Narrative Poetry. Some of the 
best examples have already been mentioned in Section II. 
To this list may be added Tennyson's Idylls of the King, 
William Morris's Earthly Paradise, Keats's " Isabella " 
and "The Eve of St. Agnes," and Matthew Arnold's 
" Sohrab and Rustum." Extended lists of narrative 
poems, with a discussion of the characteristics of this 
class of poetry, may be found in Baldwin's English Liter- 
ature (B. F. Johnson), or in Arnold's Manual of English 
Literature (Ginn). 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF LYRIC 
POETRY 



(See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 79) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

Read the poem or poems to be studied. It is best to 
read it first as a whole, not stopping to refer to notes. 
Then read it a second time, referring to notes and look- 
ing up new words. When the meaning of the poem is 
clear, take up the questions following. 

II. Classification 

By definition, lyric poetry deals with emotion. As 
this emotion may be of various kinds, lyrics are divided 
into various classes, as follows : 

Love Lyric, as Burns's " Highland Mary," Browning's 
" One Way of Love." 

Patriotic Lyric, as Key's " Star-Spangled Banner," 
Thomson's "Rule Brittania." 

Sacred Lyric, as Milton's " Ode on the Nativity," 
Tennyson's "Crossing the Bar." 
19 



20 Lyric Poetry 

Lyric of Grief, as Hood's " Bridge of Sighs," Shelley's 
" Adonais." 

Lyric of Siipplication, as Wordsworth's sonnet "To 
Sleep " ; Shelley's " To the Night." 

Lyric of Praise, which may celebrate an individual, as 
Matthew Arnold's sonnet on Shakspere, or a class, as 
Whittier's "The Ship Builders." 

Reflective Lyric, as Milton's sonnet on his blindness, 
George Eliot's " Choir Invisible." 

Descriptive Lyric, as Wordsworth's " Daffodils," Byron's 
" She Walks in Beauty." 

Battle Lyric, as Campbell's " Battle of the Baltic," 
Scott's " Pibroch of Donuil Dhu." 

Lyric of Fancy, as Ariel's songs in The Tempest, Keats's 
"Ode to a Nightingale." 

Convivial Lyric, as Burns's " Rattlin', Roarin' Willie," 
Keats's "The Mermaid Tavern." 

Humoi'ous Lyric, as Burns's " Duncan Gray," Carey's 
" Sally in Our Alley." 

Society Verse ( Vers ale Societe), lyrics which treat of 
society themes in a graceful way, as Holmes's " The Last 
Leaf," Dobson's " A Dead Letter." 

A lyric may combine feeling of several kinds : " High- 
land Mary " expresses grief as well as love, but one feel- 
ing usually predominates. 

(a) To which of the foregoing classes does the poem 
studied belong? 



Lyric Poetry 21 

Lyrics are also classified in another way, according to 
their form, as Songs, Odes, and Sonnets. 

The Song includes the greater number of lyric poems. 
It is not restricted to compositions intended to be sung, 
but includes most short lyrics, except the Sonnet. It is 
characterized by brevity, and by simplicity in thought 
and language. Examples are Collins's " How Sleep the 
Brave," Scott's " Hunting Song," and Ariel's songs in 
The Tempest. 

The Ode is longer than the Song, is more enthusiastic 
or exalted in mood, usually has a complicated metrical 
structure, and deals progressively with a dignified theme. 
Examples are Milton's " Ode on the Nativity," Dryden's 
" Alexander's Feast," and Wordsworth's " Intimations of 
Immortality." 

The Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, written in 
iambic pentameter, and usually riming in a fixed order. 
(See Appendix B, p. in.) It deals with a single idea 
or sentiment. Examples are the sonnets of Shakspere. 

{b) Does the poem studied belong to any of the fore- 
going classes ? 

III. Central Theme 

Every lyric poem has a central thought. It is built up 
about some emotion as a core. The nature of this emotion 
was roughly indicated by the classification under Section II. 



22 Lyric Poetry 

It now remains to state this emotion, or central 
theme, more definitely. A love lyric may express a 
mother's love for her child; a patriotic lyric may have 
for its theme patriotism conquering the fear of death, 
and so on. 

(a) State definitely the central theme of the poem. 

(b) Has it a secondary theme ? If so, state it. 

(c) Does the poem possess unity? 

IV. Mood 

The emotion underlying a lyric poem may be treated 
in various ways. A love lyric may be light and graceful, 
or deep and tender, or sad. 

Select one or two words which best describe the mood 
of the poem, or choose adjectives of your own if none 
of these apply : 

Tender, dreamy, sentimental, vague ; 

Strong, intense, passionate, extravagant ; 

Earnest, grave, sad, tragic, morbid ; 

Light, fanciful, cheerful, reckless ; 

Exalted, triumphant, spiritual ; 

Humorous, witty, satirical, pathetic. 

V. Movement 
Read the poem aloud and decide which of the following 
terms best express its movement : 



Lyric Poetry 23 

Smooth, slow, dignified, stately, solemn ; 
Light, swift, rippling, rollicking; 
Easy, graceful, spirited, powerful, regular ; 
Varied, irregular, uneven, halting. 

VI. Sound 

{a) As read aloud, is it pleasing to the ear ? Is it 
musical ? 

(t?) Is the music notable for its sweetness, its power, or 
its delicacy? 

(c) Are there any harsh words or lines ? Can you see 
why they are used ? 

(d) Are there any imitative words, where the sound is 
an echo to the sense, such as "hiss," "puff," etc. ? Are 
there lines whose movement is imitative, suggesting the 
thought? 

(<?) Are there examples of alliteration, i.e. words close 
together beginning with the same consonant sound ? 
Example : 

.Softly sweet, in Lydian measures, 
Soon he soothed the soul to pleasures. 

(/) Does the author use the refrain, i.e. the repetition 
of a word or a line at the end of each stanza ? If a line is 
repeated, with slight changes, as the next line, it is called 
a repetend. Example : 



24 Lyric Poetry 

But our thoughts they were palsied and sere, 
Our memories were treacherous and sere. 

Does this occur ? 

VII. Structure 

(a) What is the stanza form ? The rime order ? The 
metre ? (See Appendix B, p. in.) 

Lyric poetry is varied in metrical structure. It is often 
impossible to reduce the song and the ode to any definite 
metrical scheme. 

(b) Are there any marked changes in the metre ? Can 
you see why they were made, i.e. what effect is produced ? 

VIII. Style 
A. Diction 

Select the two or three terms from this list that best 
describe the language of the poem : 

Simple, colloquial, idiomatic ; 

Elevated, polished, ornate (over-ornamented) ; 

Smooth, strong, terse, elliptical. 

B. Style in General 

Is it characterized by : 

Grace, spontaneity, delicacy, brilliancy? 
Dignity, grandeur ? 



Lyric Poetry 25 

Strength, intensity, passion ? 

Beauty of sentiment ? Beauty of description ? 

Profusion of imagery ? 

IX. Characteristics of Author 

This question should be left until a number of poems 
by the same author have been studied ; then taking them 
as a group, turn to the outline for Narrative Poetry, Sec. 
X, p. 14, and answer the questions given there. 

X. Memory Passages 

Short lyrics should be committed entire ; with poems 
like Wordsworth's " Intimations of Immortality," the best 
stanzas may be selected for memorizing. 

XI. Life of Author 

As the lyric, more than any other form of poetry, ex- 
presses the author's personality, a knowledge of the man's 
life is more necessary here. See suggestions for study 
under Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. 

XII. Critical Opinion 1 

(a) Read several of the best criticisms of this poem. 
Compare their statements with the results obtained by 
your study under Sections IV, V, VI, and VIII. 

1 Sections XII and XIII are intended for advanced classes. 



26 Lyric Poetry 

(b) Consult a standard history of literature to ascertain 
the position of this author, how he ranks with others of 
his age, and how this poem compares with other poems 
of the same class. For a list of books that will be use- 
ful for this purpose, see the references given under Nar- 
rative Poetry, Sec. XIII, (b), p. 16. 

XIII. Comparative Study 

Select a group of lyrics by another author, such as the 
lyrics in Tennyson's Princess, or Shakspere's lyrics, or 
Poe's shorter poems, and compare them with the group 
just studied, according to the directions given under 
Narrative Poetry, Sec. XIV, p. 17. 

XIV. Collateral Reading 

(a) Collections of Lyric Poetry. Palgrave's Golde?i 
Treasury, First Series (Macmillan), contains the best 
lyric poetry written during three centuries of English 
literature. It is a book which every student of literature 
should own. The Golden Treasury, Second Series, is 
selected from writers of the Victorian period. Other valu- 
able books are Carpenter's English Lyric Poetry (Scrib- 
ners), and Schelling's Elizabethan Lyrics (Ginn). Both 
volumes contain selected, poems, with scholarly introduc- 
tions and notes. 



Lyric Poetry 27 

(&) Individual Authors. Nearly all the great English 
poets have written lyrics. There are some, however, who 
si ind out as distinctively lyric poets. Such are Burns and 
Herrick and Shelley. Other writers who have attained 
high eminence in lyric poetry are Tennyson, Swinburne, 
and Poe. The great sonnet writers in English literature 
are Shakspere, Milton, Wordsworth, and Dante G. Ros- 
setti. 






OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF DRA- 
MATIC POETRY 



(See Specimen Study, Part II. p. 81) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

The first step in the study of a literary work of any 
kind is to gain an idea of it as a whole. This can best be 
done by a single rapid reading, at a sitting, if possible. 
Do not stop to look up words nor to refer to the notes ; 
you can understand enough of the work to gain a general 
idea of it. This done, the book should be read a second 
time, more carefully, in connection with the notes. These 
notes are not to be memorized ; they are intended merely 
to help one to understand the text. After the work has 
been read in this way, take up the questions in the out- 
line and answer them, with reference to the text when 
necessary. This mastery of subject-matter, the compre- 
hension of the work as a whole, must precede any study 
of parts or of particular characteristics. 
28 



Dramatic Poetry 29 

II. Classification 

Plays are divided into the following classes : 

Tragedy, in which the ending is sad ; the principal 
characters meet disaster or death. Example, Macbeth. 

Comedy, presenting a cheerful or humorous view of 
life. Example, As You Like It. 

Reconciling Drama, which, as the name implies, unites 
some of the characteristics of both the above. The tone 
is prevailingly serious, but there are scenes of comedy ; 
a tragic ending is threatened, but averted, and the play 
ends happily. Example, The Merchant of Venice. 

To which class does this play belong? 

III. Plot 

Plots may be simple or complex. The simple plot is 
illustrated in Julius Ccesar. This play deals with the 
contest between Caesar's friends and Csesar's enemies. 
All the characters are included in these groups, and the 
whole plot deals with the strife between them. The 
complex plot is illustrated by The Merchant of Venice. 
Here there is a main story, that of the pound of flesh ; 
also a secondary story, the elopement of Jessica. The 
episodes of the caskets and of the rings still further com- 
plicate the main action. If the plot is not a single story, 
but several stories told side by side, it is called complex. 



30 Dramatic Poetry 

(a) Is the plot of this play simple or complex? If 
complex, how many threads, or separate stories, are 
there ? 

(b) Are all the events probable? If not, does the im- 
probability make the play less enjoyable? 

(V) Is the story of the play easy to follow, or is it 
sometimes confusing? Plays are written to be acted, 
not read, and are more easily understood when seen on 
the. stage. 

(d) Source. Is the plot of the play original or bor- 
rowed? If possible, read the original story. Shakspere 
took the materials for his Greek and Roman plays from 
Plutarch's Lives ; his English historical plays are largely 
based upon Holinshed's Chronicle. Both books are 
accessible. Morley's edition of the plays, in CasselFs 
National Library, gives the source of each play in the 
appendix. 

(e) What alterations have been made in the original 
story ? What additions? Why were these changes 
made? (This may form the subject of a theme.) 

IV. Setting 

(a) At what time in history are the events of the play 
supposed to occur? ' How much time do they occupy? 

(b) At what place or places is the action carried on? 
Are these places real or imaginary? 



Dramatic Poetry 31 

(7) In minor details of costume, manners, etc., is the 
play true to history ? If not, does this affect its merit as 
a play ? 

(d) Is there much description? Select the best 
description of a person ; of a scene or place. 

(If a fuller study of description is desired, see ques- 
tions under Narrative Poetry, Sec. VI, p. 10.) 

V. Characters 

(a) Who is the central figure of the play? What 
characters are associated with him, forming a group? 
Is there another group of characters ? Who is the cen- 
tral figure here ? How are these groups connected, thus 
giving unity to the plot ? 

(b) Are the characters clearly distinguished, or do you 
have some trouble in keeping them apart? 

(c) Are they lifelike : do they stand out in your mind 
as real people ? Are they vividly drawn : can you see 
them? 

(d) Do men or women occupy the chief place? 
Ruskin says : " Shakspere has no heroes ; he has only 

heroines . . . The catastrophe of every play is caused 
always by the folly or fault of a man ; the redemption, if 
there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of a woman." 
Sesame and Lilies : Of Queens' Gardens. 
Is this true of the play read? 



32 Dramatic Poetry 

(e) Are there any humorous characters in the play? 
Name them. 

(/) Study of Principal Characters. Take up the 
chief personages, one at a time, and follow them through 
the play to discover their chief traits of character. For 
example, in Julius Ccesar, when Brutus first appears he 
does not care to witness the sports, and says he is " not 
gamesome " ; this indicates a sober disposition. He 
does not give an answer at once to Cassius's urging, 
showing him to be deliberate. Go through the play in 
this manner, noting every time the person acts, speaks, 
or is spoken of, and see whether any trait of character is 
thereby shown. At the end make a summary of the 
traits found. This is one of the most stimulating parts 
of the study. One or two lessons should be given to 
each of the principal characters. 

Characters may be stationary or developing. If sta- 
tionary, they may suffer changes in fortune, etc., but 
their natures remain the same. If developing, the ex- 
periences they go through change their characters, so 
that they become more serious, more tolerant, more gen- 
erous, etc., than at the beginning. 

(g) Are the characters stationary or developing? If 
developing, do you think the experiences they go through 
are adequate to produce such changes? 



Dramatic Poetry 33 



VI. Structure 

Purpose of Scenes. Every scene in a well-written play 
serves a definite purpose. It may give us the situation, 
making us acquainted with facts necessary to comprehend 
what is to follow ; it may merely carry forward the action, 
i.e., continue the story ; it may serve to indicate charac- 
ter ; it may be introductory, preparing us for a scene to 
follow- ; it may serve as a contrast to a preceding scene ; 
or it may deepen the effect of a preceding scene, as 
in Julius CcBsar the murder of Cinna shows to what a 
frenzy the mob had been wrought by Antony's speech. 

(a) Go through the play and state briefly the purpose 
or purposes of each scene. 

(Questions b to </ inclusive apply to tragedy only.) 
The essential element in tragedy is conflict. The 
chief character wishes to accomplish some end ; he is op- 
posed by another, or by something within himself, or by 
fate, and so a conflict ensues. 

(b) Who is the principal character? What does he 
wish to accomplish? What is his motive for this? This 
motive is called the exciting force of the tragedy. By 
what or whom is the chief character opposed? 

In the first half of the play the chief character ad- 
vances toward the end he has in view ; this is called the 



34 Dramatic Poetry 

" rising action," and continues to the turning-point, where 
he is nearest success. 

(c) Where does the "rising action" begin? (It is 
usually where the exciting force enters.) Where is the 
turning-point ? 

After the turning-point, the opposing force proves 
stronger, and the chief character is gradually borne down 
by it. This is called the " falling action," and continues 
to the catastrophe, where the chief character meets ruin 
or death. 

(d) Where is the " falling-action " first manifest, i.e., 
with what event does the decline begin ? 

Dramatic foreshadowing is the letting fall of hints to 
prepare us for a coming event, usually of a tragic nature, 
as Calpurnia's bad dreams before the murder of Caesar. 

(e) Look through one or two scenes immediately 
preceding an important event, and see if there are any 
hints of it. 

VII. Contrast 

(a) Contrast is one of the most effective devices in 
art. It may be in the plot, as where a defeat is closely 
followed by a victory ; or in character, two persons being 
introduced, one just the opposite of the other in certain 
respects ; or there may be a contrast between the same 
person's actions on different occasions ; there may be 



Dramatic Poetry 35 

contrast in the descriptions ; and there may be contrast 
in the mood or tone of the poem, as where a tragic pas- 
sage is followed by one in a lighter or even a humorous 
vein. Point out, if possible, an example of each. Note 
any other ways in which contrast is used. 

(/;) Allied to contrast is the principle of parallelism, 
or introducing characters or incidents that are similar in 
many respects. For example, in The Merchant of Venice, 
Bassanio's wooing is paralleled by Gratiano's ; both win 
their wives by the same lot, both receive rings, and both 
give them away. This is parallel of incident. Does the 
play studied contain examples of parallelism, either in 
incident or character? 

VIII. Metre 

(For explanation of metrical terms, see Appendix B, 
p. in.) 

The normal metre of the drama is iambic pentameter, 
without rime, and hence called blank verse. This is 
varied in the following ways : 

By varying the place of the caesura. 

By the substitution of trochaic, spondaic, or pyrrhic feet. 

By the addition of an unaccented syllable at the end 
of a line, or sometimes following a pause within the line. 

By the addition of a sixth foot, making what is called 
an Alexandrine line. 



36 Dramatic Poetry 

By the use of incomplete lines, usually in dialogue. 

By the use of lines divided between two speakers. 

By the use of rimed couplets, often at the end of a scene. 

By the alternation of end-stopt and run-on lines. (See 
Appendix B, p. in.) 

By the introduction of lyrics, as Ophelia's songs in 
Hamlet. 

By the use of prose for certain parts. 

{a) Scan twenty lines, noting the occurrence of any 
of the points mentioned. What proportion of the lines 
are run-on? 

(b) Are there any lyrics in .the play? What is the 
metre of these? 

(c) Are any scenes entirely in prose ? Why is prose 
used here ? Find a scene in which both prose and verse 
occur. What is the reason for the change from one to 
the other? Does it depend upon the speaker, or the 
nature of the discourse ? 

IX. Style 

(a) Is the language of the play always clear? If 
obscure, is this due to the words, which are no longer 
in use, or to the thought, which is not clearly ex- 
pressed? 

(/;) Are there allusions to the Bible, or any echoes of 
Biblical style in the play ? 



Dramatic Poetry 37 

(V) Point out examples of poetic diction, i.e., words or 
phrases that would not be found in prose. 

(d) Is any part of the play written in dialect ? What 
is gained by its use? 

(e) Is there humor in the play? Are any scenes 
chiefly humorous? What purpose does humor serve in 
a tragedy ? 

(/) Is there pathos? Point out examples. 

(g) Is the style of the play at the same level through- 
out, or are there places where the author rises to a higher 
poetic level? Give examples. 

X. Memory Passages 

(a) What do you consider the finest parts of the play ? 
Select a passag! of fifteen or twenty lines and memo- 
rize it. 

(b) Are there single lines, or couplets, notable for their 
beauty or power, which may serve as quotations ? Select 
and memorize some of these. 

XI. Life of Author 

For a brief life of Shakspere, consult Dowden's Shaks- 
pere Primer, Chap. II (Am. Bk. Co.), or Wendell's 
William Shakspere, Chap. II (Scribners). For a fuller 
treatment, see the Life, by Sydney Lee (Macmillan). If 
other books are consulted, be careful to separate fact 



38 Dramatic Poetry 

from tradition. In reading about his life, note particu- 
larly the events which influenced his work as a writer of 
plays. 

XII. Critical Opinion 

Read what is said of the play in Dowden's Shakspere, 
His Mind and Art (Harpers), or read the views of critics 
in the introduction to Rolfe's edition of the play (Am. Bk. 
Co.), or in the appendix to Furness's Variorum (Lippin- 
cott). Compare briefly with the results of your study. 
What new points are brought out? 

XIII. Comparative Study- 
Choose another play of the same class, if possible one 
already studied or read, and run over it to compare it 
with this one in the chief points of the outline. Note par- 
ticularly points in which there is a marked difference. 
The comparison of the two plays might be made the 
subject of a theme. 

XIV. Collateral Reading 

The careful study of one play makes the reading of 
others a greater pleasure. There are some of Shakspere's 
plays which every educated person is supposed to have 
read. Such are The Merchant of Venice, Hamlet, 
Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, Julius Ctesar, 



Dramatic Poetry 



39 



Othello, and As You Like It. In addition, the following 
may be recommended : The Tempest, King Henry IV, 
King Henry V, Taming of the Shrew, Midsummer 
Ni^hfs Dream, Merry Wives of Windsor, and Winter's 
Tale. 




/ 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF 
FICTION 



(See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 92) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

Read the story rapidly, not stopping for introduction 
nor notes. The purpose of this is to gain a knowledge 
of the plot, and to receive an impression of the book as 
a whole. 

II. Title 

The title of a story may name the principal character, 
as in David Copperfield ; or it may suggest the plot, as 
Kidnapped ; or name the scene, as Middle-march; or 
the time, as Ninety- Three ; or mention some significant 
object, as The Scarlet Letter ; or indicate the nature of 
the story, whether tragic or the reverse, as The Light That 
Failed ; or the title may be merely fantastic, chosen to 
arouse curiosity, as Kipling's .007. Sometimes a title 
serves several purposes : The Last Days of Pompeii gives 
40 



Fiction 41 

both place and time ; Sentimental Tommy names the chief 
character and suggests the tone of the story. Modern 
titles often aim at this suggestiveness, as The Choir In- 
visible, The End of the Passage, etc. 

What purpose or purposes does the title serve ? 

III. Purpose 

Fiction may by written simply to entertain, as Robinson 
Crusoe ; it may present a historical picture, as Ivanhoe ; 
or teach a moral lesson, as Romola ; or advocate a cause, 
as Uncle Tom J s Cabin; or set forth the author's views 
upon certain subjects, as Meredith's The Egoist; or 
present a faithful picture of life as it is, as Howells's A 
Woman's Reason. Many books serve more than one of 
these purposes, yet one is usually dominant. 

(a) What was the author's purpose in writing this 
book? 

(b) If the book aims to teach a lesson, state this lesson 
in your own words. Is this lesson definitely stated in the 
book, or merely implied ? If stated, where ? (Read the 
preface.) 

(c) If the book has a purpose beyond entertainment, 
is this purpose made too prominent, so that it injures the 
book as a story ? 



42 Fiction 



IV. Plot 



{a) Is the story interesting ? Does the interest flag at 
any point ? 

(J?) Is it probable as a whole ? Are any incidents 
improbable ? Would the story be better without 
them ? 

Plots may be simple or complex. The simple plot deals 
with one character or a single group of characters, and 
follows their fortunes to the conclusion. This is usually 
the method of the short story. The complex plot has 
several groups; the story deals with one, then takes up 
another, then returns to the first, etc. This is the method 
of the romance and usually that of the novel. 

(V) Is the plot here simple or complex ? If complex, 
how many threads, or stories of different groups ? How 
are these threads united, so that the whole plot is a unit 
instead of a number of unconnected stories ? What char- 
acters serve as connecting links ? 

(d) Would you describe the movement of the story, 
the way events succeed each other, as slow, rapid, or 
usual ? Point out passages where the movement is slow, 
where it is rapid. Is it retarded by much description ? 
By the author's stopping to explain his characters ? 

(e) Does the story progress steadily from the begin- 
ning, or does it open with some event, and then in a later 



Fiction 43 

chapter go back and tell what happened before ? This is 
called reverting narration. 

(/) Does it rise to a climax, a point where the interest 
is at the highest pitch? Where is this ? Are there minor 
climaxes? 

(g) Does the author employ suspense, breaking ofT the 
story at a critical point to introduce comment or descrip- 
tion, or to take up another group of people ? Point out 
instances. 

(k) Does the story end happily or unhappily? Would 
you prefer a different ending ? What ? 

(/) Select the best chapters or the best pages in the 

book. 

V. Characters 

(a) Many or few? Did you occasionally get them 
confused? Too many? 

(7>) Drawn from what classes of society? If from 
several, with which is the author most successful? 

(V) Does the author succeed best with men or women? 
Successful with children ? 

(d) Are the characters lifelike? 

(e) Are they like real people, or are they exceptional, 
being braver, more fortunate, more beautiful, or more 
villanous than people usually are in real life? 

(/) Is there any tendency to exaggerate certain traits 
of character, so making caricatures ? 



44 Fiction 

(g) Are any of the characters historical? If so, does 
the novelist present them in the same light as historians 
do? This may be made the subject of a theme. 

(A) Can you separate the characters easily into two 
groups, — good people and wicked people, — or are good 
and evil traits mingled in the same person, the good people 
sometimes yielding to temptation, and even the worst 
characters having some redeeming traits? 

(J) Are the characters consistent, or do they sometimes 
surprise you by doing something you think they would 
not do? 

Characters may be stationary or developing. If sta- 
tionary, they may suffer changes in fortune, etc., but their 
natures remain the same. If developing, the experiences 
they go through change their characters, so that they 
become more serious, more tolerant, more generous, etc., 
than at the beginning. 

(/) Are the characters stationary or developing? If 
developing, do you think the experiences they go through 
are adequate to produce such changes ? 

There are two methods of characterization : the dra- 
matic and the analytic. In the dramatic we form our 
opinions of the characters from what they do and say ; in 
the analytic method, the author comments upon the char- 
acters, explaining their motives, etc. 

(k) Which method is usually employed here ? Most 



Fiction 45 

authors combine the two. Point out examples of char- 
acterization by each method. 

(/) Who is the hero? What are the chief traits of 
his character, the things for which you admire him? 
Who is the heroine, and what are her chief traits ? 

(;;/) In general, what qualities or traits of character 
does the author represent as most admirable ? What do 
you think his ideal man would be like ? Which of his 
characters comes nearest this? This may be made the 
subject of a theme. 

(n) Are there any supernatural characters, as ghosts, 
etc. ? Is their use effective, or would the story be better 
without them ? 

(o) Do men or women occupy the chief place in the 
story ? 

(p) In the older type of stories, the author used to 
call up all his characters in the last chapter and say a few 
words about the final fortunes of each one. Realistic 
fiction — that which aims to present life as it is — usually 
omits this general dismissal at the close. 

Which method is followed here? 



VI. Classification 

Fiction includes the romance and the novel. In the 
romance the incidents are often improbable or unusual • 



46 Fiction 

the chief characters are not ordinary people ; 1 the chief 
interest is in the plot : you read it for the story. In the 
novel the incidents are probable, the characters taken 
from every-day life, and you are interested in the charac- 
ters as much as in the plot. 
Is this a romance or a novel? 

VII. Description 

(a) Are there any long passages of description ? Do 
they interfere with the progress of the story ? Were you 
tempted to skip them ? 

(b) Is there much description of nature? Did you 
like it? Select the best description of a landscape, a 
sunrise, or a sunset. 

(c) Does the author introduce objects or details of 
costume, etc., peculiar to the locality he is describing? 
This is called local color. 

(d) Sometimes description is used for dramatic back- 
ground, as when a fight takes place during a storm, or 
lovers meet by moonlight ; the surroundings harmonizing 
with the action, or sometimes contrasting with it. Are 
there examples of this ? 

1 In the old romance, of Scott and Dumas, the characters are usually 
types : the soldier, the priest, the noble, etc., embodying the character- 
istics of a class, but not sharply individualized. In the modern romance, 
of Stevenson, the characters are individualized. 



Fiction 47 

In describing people, various methods may be used : 

Exaggeration of some particular trait or feature ; giv- 
ing a character some peculiarity, and always mentioning 
this when the character appears, so that it becomes a 
means of identifying him. 

Enumeration : mentioning many details of appearance, 
dress, manners, etc. 

Selected details : mentioning only two or three de- 
tails, but these so well chosen that you have a clear idea 
of the person. 

(e) Note where the principal characters first appear, 
and see which method is followed in describing them. 

(/) Does the author's strength lie chiefly in narration, 
in character drawing, or in description ? 

(If a fuller study of description is desired, other ques- 
tions will be found under Narrative Poetry, Sec. VI, 
p. 10.) 

VIII. Contrast 

Contrast is one of the most effective devices in art. It 
may be in the plot, as where a defeat is closely followed 
by a victory ; or in character, two persons being intro- 
duced, one just the opposite of the other in certain re- 
spects ; or there may be a contrast between the same 
person's actions on different occasions ; there may be 
contrast in the descriptions ; and there may be contrast 



48 Fiction 

in the mood or tone of the story, as where a tragic pas- 
sage is followed by one in a lighter or even a humorous 
vein. Point out, if possible, an example of each. Note 
any other ways in which contrast is used. 

IX. Style 

A. Style in General 

i. Does it possess individuality, i.e. is it markedly differ- 
ent from that of other writers, so that you could recognize 
a book by this writer if you did not know who wrote it ? 

2. Does the author have the power of making epigrams, 
i.e. short, striking sentences, full of meaning, that may 
serve as quotations ? Select and memorize some of these. 

3. Is there any humor? Is it quiet or broad? Is it 
one of the strong points of the book? Give examples. 

4. Are there pathetic passages? Are they affecting? 
Select the best. Is pathos one of the strong points of 
the book? 

5. Would you describe the style as : 

Direct, animated, brilliant? 

Balanced, stiff, artificial, bookish, dull? 

Eccentric, confused, disjointed, obscure? 

Quote passages in illustration, and say which of these 
qualities are characteristic of the style, which are occa- 
sional. 



Fiction 49 

6. Of the three chief qualities of style, clearness, force 
and beauty, which is most notable in this book ? 

B. Diction 

1. Does the author use any words that are unfamil- 
iar? Many? Give examples. 

2. Is dialect used? Is it hard to understand? What 
is gained by its use ? 

3. In the dialogues, do the characters talk like ordi- 
nary people, or is the conversation rather stiff and book- 
ish ? Or are they too clever, always saying bright 
things ? 

4. Which of these terms best describe the diction : 

Simple, idiomatic, colloquial? 
Polished, elevated, dignified? 
Terse, vigorous, picturesque? 

(If a fuller study of style is desired, see questions under 
Essay, Sec. V, p. 58.) 

X. Characteristics of Author 

With very few exceptions, authors put their own per- 
sonality into their works, so that it is possible to infer 
from any book some of the characteristics of the man 
who wrote it. In answering the questions below, do not 
expect to find indications of all or of many of the charac- 



50 Fiction 

teristics enumerated. Some will probably be apparent 
at once, others will disclose themselves after a little 
study. 

{a) Judging from the book alone, would you infer that 
the author was : 

Earnest, sympathetic, broad-minded, philanthropic? 
Flippant, cynical, prejudiced, misanthropic? 
Cheerful, optimistic; or grave, pessimistic?, 
Independent, original, a reformer? 
Conventional, conservative ? 
A man of high ideals ? patriotic ? devout ? 

In each case tell upon what passages you base your 
reply. 

(b) Do his writings indicate that he possessed : 

A vivid imagination? 
A keen sense of humor? 

A philosophical turn of mind, shown in a tendency to 
generalize, or to seek for causes ? 

(c) Was he a man who had evidently had a wide ex- 
perience of life? 

A man of much learning, scholarship ? 
A man of broad culture, familiar with music, paint- 
ing, literature, etc.? 

A lover of nature ? What were his favorite books ? 



Fiction 5 1 

(d) Apart from his fame as an author, would you like 
to know him? To have him for a friend? 

(e) Write a theme upon the character of the author as 
shown in his works, quoting passages to illustrate your 
points. 

XI. Life of Author 

See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. 

XII. Critical Opinion 

Read one or two good critical articles discussing this 
author. Lists of such articles are given in Clark's Eng- 
lish Prose Writers (Scribners). Consult a standard his- 
tory of literature to learn the historical importance of this 
writer ; how he ranks with others of his time \ how he 
compares with other great novelists. See references under 
Narrative Poetry, Sec. XIII, b, and add the following : 
The Development of the English Novel, Cross (Macmillan), 
and The Eiiglish Novel, Raleigh (Scribners) . The latter 
book follows the history of fiction only to 1814. The 
Evolution of the English Novel, Stoddard (Macmillan) is 
a recent book of value in the study of fiction. 

XIII. Comparative Study- 
Choose a story recently read, if possible, one of a differ- 
ent type, as a novel instead of a romance, and go over it 



52 Fiction 

to compare with this in the chief points of the outline, 
noting particularly where there are marked differences. 
Are these due to the time in which the men wrote, the 
subject, the nature of the story, — whether romance or 
novel, — or to differences in the authors ? This compari- 
son may be made the subject of a theme. 

XIV. Collateral Reading 

The present is the age of the novel as truly as the 
Elizabethan period was the age of the drama. The student 
of literature should read at least one book by each of the 
masters of English fiction. Defoe, Goldsmith, Jane Aus- 
ten, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, R. L. 
Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling ; and Cooper, Hawthorne, 
Poe, and W. D. Howells may be mentioned as a suggestive 
list. The supply of fiction is so constant to-day that the 
temptation is strong to read the book of the day, usually 
of very slight significance, and speedily forgotten. Emer- 
son's rule never to read any book that is not a year old 
will save one from much trash. 






4$ 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF 
THE ESSAY 



(See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 98) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

The first step in the study of a literary work of any 
kind is to gain an idea of it as a whole. This can best be 
done by a single rapid reading, at a sitting if possible. 
Do not stop to look up words nor to refer to the notes ; 
you can understand enough of the work to gain a general 
idea of it. This done, the book should be read a second 
time, more carefully, in connection with the notes. These 
notes are not to be memorized ; they are intended merely 
to help one to understand the text. After the work has 
been read in this way, take up the questions in the outline 
and answer them, with reference to the text when neces- 
sary. This mastery of subject-matter, the comprehension 
of the work as a whole, must precede any study of parts 
or of particular characteristics. 

II. Classification 

Essays may be classified, according to the manner in 
which the subject is treated, into : 
53 



V 

54 The Essay 

' \ 

Narrative Essays, those which relate a series of events, 
as a biography or a historical sketch. Examples : Macau- 
lay's " Warren Hastings " ; De Quincey's " Flight of a 
Tartar Tribe." 

Critical Essays, usually dealing with questions of litera- 
ture or art, as Lowell's Among My Books ; Walter Pater's 
The Renaissance. 

Reflective, or Wisdo??i Essays, dealing with general sub- 
jects, and usually didactic. Example, Bacon's Essays, 
and Emerson's. 

Perso7ial Essays, which do not pretend to present new 
truths, nor great thoughts, but give the author's individual 
opinions of men and things. The personal essay is often 
humorous. Example, Lamb's Essays of Elia. 

Essays may belong to more than one of these classes. 
Macaulay's " Life and Writings of Addison " is partly 
narrative, partly critical. Yet one characteristic usually 
predominates. 

To which of the above classes does the essay belong? 



III. Structure 

The essay has no rigid laws of structure. In longer 
essays, however, such as Macaulay's, some plan is fol- 
lowed. 

(a) The Introduction. The opening paragraphs usu- 



The Essay 55 

ally serve as an introduction. Where does the intro- 
duction end? 

This may serve several ends, as follows : To state clearly 
and fully the subject of the essay ; to arouse interest in 
this subject ; to give the author's reasons for choosing the 
subject; to indicate the manner in which the subject is 
to be treated. 

(&) What purpose or purposes does this introduction 
accomplish? 

(V) The Body. What is the central theme of the essay, 
the principal subject treated? State this in a sentence. 
Is there more than one subj ect ? If several, are they closely 
related? Then does the essay possess unity? (Essays 
are permitted more latitude in this respect than other 
literary forms.) Are there any digressions, places where 
the author speaks at some length, usually several pages, 
of matters not directly connected with the main subject? 
Do these violate the unity of the essay? 

(d) The Conclusion. Has the essay a formal conclu- 
sion? If so, where does it begin? 

This may serve to sum up the main points in the essay ; 
to restate certain points for emphasis ; or to make a well- 
rounded close, leaving a favorable impression in the minds 
of the hearers. 

(e) What purpose or purposes does this conclusion 
serve? 



56 The Essay 

IV. Study of Essay as a Whole 

The method of study will depend upon the nature of 
the essay. 

A. Narrative Essay 

i. Are the events told in a logical order, so that the 
thought of the essay is easy to follow? What order is 
observed, that of time, or of cause and effect? 

2. Is there much description of places? Enough to 
give a clear idea of the situation? Too much? Select 
the best descriptive passages. 

3. Are the descriptions of people vivid? Do you have 
a clear mental picture of them? 

4. If the essay is biographical, does the author succeed 
in presenting a complete picture of the man, — is he real 
to you? 

5. If the essay is biographical, read the account of the 
man given in an encyclopaedia. Comparing this with the 
essay, is the essayist a hero-worshipper, presenting his 
subject in the most favorable light, or has he dwelt too 
much upon faults, lowering the man in our opinions ? Or 
is the essay a frank setting-forth of the facts, without bias 
in either direction? If the latter, what was the essayist's 
motive in telling what was already known ? 

6. If the essay is historical, compare it with the ac- 
count given in a standard history. Judged by this, is the 



The Essay 57 

essay accurate in matters of fact? Is it more, or less, 
interesting, or vivid, than the history? Are any new facts 
brought out in the essay? If not, what was the aim of the 
essayist in restating facts already known ? 

B. Critical Essay 

This usually deals with an author or a single book. 
Read the book first, then the essay. 

i. Does the essayist judge too harshly or praise too 
highly? Is he fair? 

2. Can you feel the merit of all that he praises? If 
not, does this show that the praise is misplaced? 

3. Is it the aim of the essayist to call attention to merits 
which have not been appreciated? To point out faults 
in a work that has been overestimated? Or to give a 
complete view of the work, showing merits and faults im- 
partially? To answer this, read a criticism of the book 
by another author, and compare the two. 

C. Reflective Essay 

This demands careful study, sentence by sentence, to 
insure that the meaning is grasped. Difficult words and 
allusions should be looked up in an unabridged diction- 
ary, not to commit the definitions, but to understand the 
use of the words in this place. 



58 The Essay 

D. Personal Essay 

To what extent does the author reveal himself in his 
work ? Can you infer what his habits were ? his likes and 
dislikes? his favorite books? See questions under Nar- 
rative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. 

V. Style 
A. Style in Genei'al 

1. Does it possess individuality, i.e. is the style mark- 
edly different from that of other writers, so that you might 
recognize a book of his even if you did not know the 
author ? 

2. Is there any humor in the essay? Is it quiet or 
broad? Is humor one of the strong points of the book? 
Point out examples. 

3. Is pathos found? Is it effective? 

4. Does the author employ irony? ridicule? satire? 
Any of these to a marked degree ? 

5. Are figures of speech used? frequently? Are they 
effective? Point out examples. (See Appendix A, p. 
108.) 

6. Is the work characterized by accuracy of statement ? 
logical power? keen analysis? sympathetic appreciation? 
or by exaggeration ? prejudice ? untruth ? 



The Essay 59 

7. Select such of the terms below or of your own 
choosing as apply to his style : 

Smooth, graceful, musical; 

Rough, plain, harsh, commonplace ; 

Direct, animated, brilliant, stimulating ; 

Balanced, rhetorical, stiff, bookish, dull ; 

Clear, flexible, poetic, dignified ; 

Obscure, rambling, confused, eccentric, pedantic. 

8. Of the three chief qualities of style, clearness, force, 
and beauty, which is the most marked here ? 

9. Compare a few pages of an oration and note differ- 
ences of style. What appear to be the distinguishing 
qualities of essay style? 

10. Write a theme on the style of this essay, giving 
quotations to illustrate the chief points. 

B. Quotation and Allusion 

1. Does the author quote other writers ? Frequently? 
From what books does he quote oftenest? Does he 
quote accurately? 

An allusion is an indirect reference, the author taking 
for granted the reader's knowledge of the thing referred 
to. Thus to say, " I was plunged in a slough of despond," 
is to make an allusion to Pilgrim's Progress ; " He poured 
out the vials of his wrath upon my head" is an allusion to 



60 The Essay 

Revelation. Allusions to the Bible are frequent, also to 
Shakspere, to Milton, and to classic mythology. 

2. Are there examples of allusion? What books are 
most frequently alluded to ? 

C. Paragraphs 

i. Long, short, or of medium length? The average 
length of paragraphs in modern prose, unbroken by dia- 
logue, is between ioo and 120 words. 1 Count ten con- 
secutive paragraphs and get the average. 

2. Do they possess unity? The test for this is to 
state the substance of the paragraph in a sentence. Try 
ten paragraphs in this way to see whether any of them 
contain ideas not closely related to the main thought. 

3. Are the paragraphs usually linked together by some 
expression at the beginning, as "in the next place," or 
by the repetition of a word used near the end of the pre- 
ceding paragraph? Point out examples of linked para- 
graphs. 

4. If possible, make an outline of the essay, by para- 
graphs, stating the subject of each in a sentence. Do 
the paragraphs follow in logical order, one continuing 
the thought of the preceding paragraph, or are there 
some that seem out of place? 

1 This statement is based on a count of thousands of examples taken 
from modern writers. 



The Essay 61 

D. Sentences 

i. Always clear? In structure, are they simple or 
much involved? 

2. Long, short, or of average length? The average 
sentence-length in modern prose is between twenty-five 
and thirty words. 1 Count twenty consecutive sentences 
and find the average. 

3. Do they sometimes contain several principal ideas, 
not closely related, and so lack unity? 

4. In structure, are they generally loose or periodic? 

5. Are balanced sentences used frequently? Give 
examples. 

6. Are exclamatory or interrogative sentences used 
frequently? What is gained by this form? 

7. Is antithesis used? Climax? Give examples. 

8. Does the author possess the power of making epi- 
grams, i.e. short, pithy sentences that may serve as quo- 
tations? Give examples. 

E. Words 

1. Are there any unusual words? many? are these 
words newly coined? slang? technical terms? foreign 
words? dialect? obsolete words? Give examples. 

2. Is the author's vocabulary copious ? This is shown 
partly in the use of unfamiliar words, partly in the repe- 

1 See note, p. 60. 



62 The Essay 

tition of ideas without repeating the words, partly in the 
choice of words, the author always having the right word 
to express his meaning. 

3. Does he use words precisely, showing an exact 
knowledge of their meanings? 

4. Does he prefer specific or general terms? Give 
examples. 

5. Are there examples of Biblical forms of speech? 
Give examples. 

6. Select the two or three words in the following list 
which best describe his diction : 

Clear, simple, idiomatic, colloquial, homely ; 

Learned, terse, polished, eloquent, ornate (over-orna- 
mented) ; 

Obscure, quaint, grotesque, hackneyed, verbose (too 
many words) . 

Quote passages which illustrate your answer. Distin- 
guish between qualities that are characteristic of the 
author's style, and those which are shown occasionally. 

VI. Memory Passages 

Select the best passages in the essay. Do they ap- 
peal to you chiefly because of their beauty, or their truth, 
or their strength? Memorize one of these passages. 
Select and memorize single sentences that impress you. 



The Essay 63 

VII. Characteristics of Author 
See Narrative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. 

VIII. Life of Author 
See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. 

IX. Critical Opinion 

Read one or two good critical articles discussing this 
author. Lists of such articles are given in Clark's Eng- 
lish Prose Writers (Scribners) . Consult a standard his- 
tory of literature to learn the historical importance of this 
writer ; how he ranks with other great essayists. Books 
that will be useful here are, for English literature : Gosse, 
Eighteenth Century Literature (Macmillan) ; Perry, 
Eighteenth Century Literature (Harpers) ; Saintsbury, 
Nineteenth Century Literature (Macmillan) ; Oliphant, 
Victorian Literature (Lovell). For American literature, 
Richardson, Ame7'ican Literature (Putnams) ; Wen- 
dell, Literary History of America (Scribners) ; Carpen- 
ter, American Prose (Macmillan.) 

X. Comparative Study 

Select an essay by another author, preferably one al- 
ready studied or read, and compare with this. See Nar- 
rative Poetry, Sec. XIV, p. 17. 



64 The Essay 

XI. Collateral Reading 

The works of the great essayists present a rich field for 
the student. The following list is suggested : Bacon, 
Emerson, Macaulay, Addison, Lamb, Carlyle, Ruskin, 
De Quincey, Matthew Arnold, Lowell, John Burroughs. 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF 
THE ORATION 



(See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 103) 



I. Mastery of Subject-matter 

See Essay, Sec. I, p. 53. 

II. Structure 

An oration may usually be divided into three parts : 
the introduction ; the discussion, or handling of the 
theme ; and the conclusion, or peroration. Can this 
oration be so divided? Where does the introduction 
end? The discussion? 

III. The Introduction 

This may serve several ends, as follows : To state 
clearly and fully the subject of the oration ; to arouse 
interest in this subject ; to give the orator's reasons for 
choosing the subject ; to indicate the manner in which 
the subject is to be treated ; to gain the good-will of the 
audience. 

65 



66 The Oration 

What purpose or purposes does this introduction accom- 
plish? 

IV. The Discussion 

An orator always has some definite aim. He may 
wish to persuade his hearers of some truth ; or to move 
them to some action ; or to lead them to honor some 
character. This motive forms the central theme of the 
oration, and to developing this the discussion is devoted. 

(a) What is the central theme here ? State it clearly 
in a sentence. Where is this fully set forth ? Why here 
rather than sooner or later ? 

An orator aims to influence men's minds. He may 
do this by appealing to their intellect, presenting argu- 
ments, or appealing to their emotions, arousing their 
anger, pity, sympathy, etc. 

(&) Which method is employed most frequently? 
Point out examples of each, if possible. In passages 
which appeal to the intellect, does the orator usually 
make a statement and then give his reasons for it, or 
do the reasons come first, the statement following as a 
conclusion? Which order seems preferable? 

(c) If the orator is attempting to persuade his hearers 
to a certain course of action, does he take them on high 
moral grounds, appealing to their honor, their patriotism, 
their sense of justice, etc. ; or does he rest his case upon 



The Oration 67 

expediency, showing that it would be easier, cheaper, 
more convenient, or more to their advantage, to act so? 
Give examples of appeals of each kind, if possible. 

(d) Are there any places where the orator turns aside 
and speaks at some length of matters which do not bear 
directly on the main thought? Can you justify these 
digressions ? 

V. The Peroration 

This may serve to sum up the main points in the ora- 
tion ; to restate certain points for emphasis ; or to make 
a well-rounded close, leaving a favorable impression in 
the minds of the hearers. 

(a) What purpose or purposes does this peroration 
serve ? 

(b) Is the style of the peroration at all different from 
that of the introduction, or the discussion? In what 
respect ? 

VI. Style 

See Essay, Sec. V, p. 58, and add to the questions 
there given the following, under Style in General : 

Euphony, or pleasing sound, is particularly desirable 
in an oration. Read the best passages aloud ; note the 
rhythm of the sentences. Would they deliver well ? Are 
there any unpleasant combinations of sounds ? 



68 The Oration 

VII. Memory Passages 

Select the best passages in the oration. Do they 
appeal to you chiefly because of their beauty, or their 
truth, or their strength? Memorize one of these pas- 
sages. Select and memorize single sentences that impress 
you. 

VIII. Characteristics of Author 

See Narrative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. 

IX. Life of Author 
See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. 

X. Critical Opinion 
See Essay, Sec. IX, p. 63. 

XI. Comparative Study 

Select another oration, preferably one already studied 
or read, and compare with this according to suggestions 
given under Narrative Poetry, Sec. XIV, p. 1 7. 

XII. Collateral Reading 

(a) Illustrative Matter. Great orations are usually 
inspired by great crises in a nation's life, or deal with 



The Oration 69 

men who have made great achievements. To appreciate 
such orations fully, it is necessary to be familiar with the 
measures or the men discussed. Standard biographies, 
such as the American Statesmen Series, and the larger 
histories of the United States and England, will furnish 
means for this study. 

(b) Other Orations. The number of great orators 
whose speeches survive as literature is not large. Pitt, 
Burke, Fox, Sheridan, Clay, Calhoun, Webster, Everett, 
Lincoln, Sumner, and Phillips, are among the most im- 
portant. The student who aims at public life, with its 
accompanying necessity for public speaking, will be helped 
by studying the models of oratory left by these men. 



Part II 

SPECIMEN STUDIES 



STUDY OF LOWELL'S "VISION OF 
SIR LAUNFAL" 

II. Classification 
Metrical Tale. 

III. Purpose 

(a) To entertain, and to teach a spiritual truth. 

(b) It teaches the true spirit of charity : that unless 
you give yourself with your gift, it is nothing. 

(c) This lesson is definitely stated in Part I, stanza 6, 
and in Part II, stanza 8. 

IV. Plot 

(a) The story is clear after the introduction of Sir 
Launfal, but in the first prelude it does not appear for 
some time what the poem is about. 

(t?) It is interesting, though perhaps the interest flags 
in the long description in the second prelude. 

{c) The climax occurs in Part II, stanza 7, where the 
leper is transformed. 

(d) The story is probable, since the two meetings 
with the leper are represented as only a dream. 

73 



74 Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" 

(<?) The poem has not perfect unity : the first prelude 
is not strictly a part of the story. 
(/) There are no episodes. 
(g) The plot is original. 

V. Characters 

(a) The characters are few, and clearly distinguished. 

(£) They are lifelike, though not very vividly drawn. 

(V) The hero is Sir Launfal. His character is marked 
at first by pride and scornfulness, later by humility and 
charity. 

{d, e) Women are absent from the poem. 

(/) The leper is a supernatural character, and effec- 
tively used. 

(g) The chief character is developing, as explained 
above. It is a question whether a dream would suffice 
to cause such a change. 

VI. Setting 

(a) The events are supposed to occur in England, 
probably during the Middle Ages, when chivalry flour- 
ished. 

(b) The time and place are not definitely stated. 

(V) There is much description in the poem. A de- 
tailed description is that of the June day, in the first pre- 



Lowell's "Vision of Sir Laimfal" 75 

hide. Examples of brief description are those of the 
castle, Part I, stanza 2, and of the leper, Part I, stanza 5. 

{d) The poem is full of description of nature. Be- 
sides the long descriptions in the two preludes, there are 
brief ones in Part II, stanzas 1 and 3. Nearly all the 
similes are drawn from nature. Perhaps the best descrip- 
tion is that of the June day. The descriptions are accu- 
rate, as where he speaks of the robin "plastering" his 
nest, and says that the river is bluer than the sky, show- 
ing close observation. Personification of natural objects 
is frequent, e.g. " Every clod feels a stir of might." 

(<?) There is no local color, as there is no definite 
locality. 

(/) The descriptive passages in the preludes are as 
important as the story. 

(g) The author does not usually give the form of 
objects ; he gives color, using general rather than specific 
terms. There is usually sound and motion in his descrip- 
tions. All these points are shown in the second prelude, 
stanza 2. He does not mention odors. 

(/z) His strength lies chiefly in description. 

VII. Contrast 

There is contrast in station between the proud knight 
and the poor leper ; there is contrast in character between 
Sir Launfal in Part I and in Part II. There is contrast 



76 Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" 

in description between the two preludes. Minor con- 
trasts are between the gloomy castle and the glad bright 
country around it ; between the merry-making in the 
castle on Christmas eve and the cold and storm without. 



VIII. Style 

A. Style in General 

i. There is pathos in the figure of Sir Launfal turned 
away from his castle gate (Part II, stanza 2). There is 
no humor. 

2. The style as a whole is clear, fresh, and musical. 

3. The tone is earnest and dignified, especially in 
Part II. The description of the brook in the second 
prelude is delicate. 

-B. Figures of Speech 

1 . The poem has a profusion of imagery : the most 
common figure is metaphor. 

2. Simile : 

Like a locust shrills the imprisoned sap. 
Metaphor : 

At the Devil's booth are all things sold. 
Personification : 

Heaven tries earth if it be in tune. 



Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" 77 

Metonymy : 

For a cap and bells our lives we pay. 
The Homeric simile is not found. 
3. A number of the figures are original. 
Examples : 
His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine (II, 8). 
The wanderer is welcome to the hall 
As the hang-bird is to the elm-tree bough (II, 10). 

C. Diction 
i. The diction is polished and elevated. 

2. It differs from that of prose. In the opening lines 
of the poem the words " list," " lay," and " doth " belong 
to the diction of poetry. 

3. Biblical expressions are found, e.g. 

Himself the Gate whereby men can 
Enter the temple of God in man (II, 7). 

IX. Metre 

(a) The metre is iambic pentameter, with frequent 
substitution of anapests. 

(b) There are frequent changes in the metre. Occa- 
sional lines of three feet are found. In Part II, stanza 1, 
the closing lines move more slowly, to suit the thought. 
In Part II, stanza 8, the opening lines are anapestic, giv- 
ing a soft, flowing movement, suited to the thought. 

(c) No. 



78 Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" 

(d) Scansion. 

W | \J \J | uu — I w 

And what is so rare | as a day in June? 

kj\ w | w |w 

Then, | if ever, | come perfect days; 

w | v_/ |uw — |w 

Then Heaven tries earth | if it be in tune, 

\y |ww I w KJ — I — 

And over it softly | her warm ear lays 

w| v I w — I w u| — w 

Whether we look, | or whether we listen, 5 

\j — I — — I v w I — w I — w 
We hear life murmur, | or see it glisten; 

w| — w|u \\j — 

Every clod | feels a stir of might, 

w \\j w I \j w — |ww 

An instinct within it | that reaches and towers, 

w I w — |uw — |uu 

And, I groping blindly above it for light, 

w|u |w |v^ 

Climbs to a soul | in grass and flowers; 10 

X. Characteristics of Author 

(a) The poem shows that the author was earnest, sympa- 
thetic, philanthropic in spirit, and devout. Earnestness is 
shown in the general tone of the poem, and its evident 
lesson. Sympathy is shown in the way the leper is spoken 
of; philanthropy in the spirit that animates Sir Launfal 
after the vision. The transformation of the leper and his 
words to Sir Launfal show a devout spirit. A love of 
nature is shown in the descriptions, and in the constant 
use of imagery borrowed from nature. 



STUDY OF TENNYSON'S "BUGLE 
SONG" 

II. Classification 

(a) Love lyric. 

{I?) Song. 

III. Central Theme 

(a) The central theme is the undying power of human 
love. 

{b) There is no secondary theme. 
(c) The poem has unity. 

IV. Mood 
The mood is tender, dreamy. 

V. Movement 
The movement is varied and graceful. 

VI. Sound 

(a) It is musical. 

(b) The music is notable for sweetness and delicacy. 

(c) There are no harsh words. 

79 



80 Tennyson's "Bugle Song" 

(d) The closing lines of each stanza are imitative in 
movement. The first words must be pronounced explo- 
sively, suggesting the sudden blast of the bugle, while the 
last words, ending with an unaccented syllable, suggest 
the sound growing fainter. 

(<?) Alliteration is found in " snowy summits," " long, 
light . . . lakes," etc. 

(/) The repetend is used, the closing lines of each 
stanza being repeated with slight variations. 

VII. Structure 

(a) It is written in a six-line stanza riming x a x a b b, 
with internal rime in the x lines. The metre is chiefly 
iambic. 

(b) There is a marked change in metre in the last 
lines of each stanza, to suggest the sound of the bugle 
and its echoes. 

VIII. Style 

{a) The diction is polished and elevated. 
(b) The style in general is characterized by grace, 
beauty of sentiment, and beauty of description. 



STUDY OF SHAKSPERE'S "HAMLET" 

II. Classification 

It is a tragedy. 

III. Plot 

(a) The plot is simple, dealing entirely with the 
affairs of Hamlet and those about him, except for the 
references to Fortinbras, which are hardly important 
enough to form a sub-plot. 

(fr) The events are probable, except the appearance of 
the Ghost, which adds to the interest of the story. 

(c) The story is easy to follow. 

(d) The source is uncertain. The story is told in 
Belleforest's Histoires Tragiques, and there was probably 
an older play called " Hamlet." Shakspere may have 
used one or both of these sources. 

(e) In Belleforest's version, Hamlet is not killed by 
Laertes, but becomes king of Denmark, goes to England, 
marries two wives, and is finally slain in battle. The end- 
ing that Shakspere gives deepens the tragedy, and is 
dramatically much more effective. 



82 Shakspere's " Hamlet" 

IV. Setting 

(a) The events of the play are supposed to occur in 
10 1 2 a.d. The time occupied is several months, as 
Hamlet says in I, 2, 138, that his father had been dead 
less than two months; in III, 2, 135, Ophelia says it is 
four months since the king's death, and there must be 
time after this for Hamlet's sea voyage and return. 

(<£) The scene is laid at Elsinore, a Danish seaport. 

(c) The Danes were not Christians at this time, yet 
Marcellus speaks of celebrating the Saviour's birth (I, 1, 
159). Cannon were not used there so early; they are 
mentioned in V, 2, 288. Yet these are minor matters, 
and do not affect the merit of the play. 

(d) There is little description in the play. The Ghost 
is described, I, 2, 200-241 ; also Hamlet as he appeared 
to Ophelia, II, 1, 78-100. The place of Ophelia's death 
is briefly described, IV, 7, 167-173. 

V. Character 

(a) Hamlet is the central figure ; with him are asso- 
ciated Horatio and, at first, Ophelia. Another group is 
made up of the King and Queen, Polonius, Ophelia, and 
the others of the court. Ophelia and, to some extent, 
the Queen serve as connecting links, though the two 
groups are not really separate. 



Sbaksperes "Hamlet" 83 

(b) The characters are clearly distinguished, except 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, whom Shakspere pur- 
posely makes mere dummy men. 

(c) The characters are lifelike, so much like real 
people that we speak of Hamlet as familiarly as of Henry 
the Eighth : one is as real to us as the other. 

(d) Men are the chief characters here, and the catas- 
trophe is through Hamlet's fault, or Hamlet's misfortune. 

(<?) The First Gravedigger is a humorous character, 
and Polonius, unconsciously so. 

(/) Study of Hamlet's Character, Act I. His first 
speech (I, 2, 65-66) is bitter, sarcastic. His reply to 
the King (1. 68) shows him ready with a retort, and his . 
words often have a double meaning : he is quick-witted. 
The Queen's speech tells us that he has mourned deeply 
his father's death, showing an affectionate nature. Line 
76 shows that he is sincere in his feeling. This appears 
also in his attitude toward the King : Hamlet does not 
pretend any affection for him. His soliloquy (1. 129) 
shows first his melancholy ; he is weary of life, yet he is 
restrained from suicide by his conscience, showing a 
strong sense of right. His abhorrence of his mother's 
hasty marriage shows his own high standard of conduct. 
His greeting of Horatio (1. 162) shows cordiality, but 
the repeated questions as to why Horatio came, show per- 
haps a tendency to suspicion. 



84 Shakspere's "Hamlet" 

In Scene 4, lines 8-20, his displeasure at the drunken 
revels of the court suggests that he himself was refined in 
nature and temperate in his habits. Lines 22-37 show a 
tendency to seek for causes, to speculate on various 
topics : marks of a philosophical turn of mind. 

In Scene 5, lines 29-30, he promises instant revenge 
to the Ghost, yet takes no steps to keep his promise. 
He lacks steadfastness of purpose. Lines 91-93 show 
him greatly moved by the Ghost's communication : his 
nature is highly emotional. Lines 131 and 165 show 
again his tendency to philosophize. In lines 188-189 ne 
regrets the necessity for action, showing a tendency to 
shrink from responsibilities. 

(g) The chief characters in the play are stationary. 
The action is too short to allow time for character devel- 
opment. 

VI. Structure 

(a) Purpose of Scenes. 

Act I 

Scene 1 is introductory, preparing us for what is to 
follow, and arousing interest. 

Scene 2 is also preparatory, giving the situation in 
Denmark, especially the relation of Hamlet to the King 
and Queen. It also gives indications as to the character 
of Hamlet. 



Sbakspere's "Hamlet" 85 

Scene 3 is also preparatory, giving Hamlet's relations 
to Ophelia, and the character of Ophelia. 

Scene 4 is preparatory : the appearance of the Ghost 
and its beckoning to Hamlet arouse our interest. 

Scene 5 practically begins the main action of the play, 
for here Hamlet learns of his father's murder, and vows 
revenge. This scene also reveals Hamlet's character. 

Act II 

Scene 1. This gives the character of Polonius and 
Laertes. The action advances slightly, as we learn of 
Hamlet's visit to Ophelia, and the characters of both are 
shown. 

Scene 2 introduces a side-action : the employment of 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy upon Hamlet. 
The main action is carried forward by having the speech 
of the players arouse Hamlet to the need of action. The 
character of Hamlet is shown in his long soliloquy, and 
there is preparation for a following scene in his planning 
the play to catch the King. 

Act III 

Scene 1 advances the action, as the King consents to 
see the play ; also Hamlet breaks with Ophelia, and the 
King determines to send him to England. Hamlet's 
character is further revealed in his soliloquy. 



86 Shakspere's "Hamlet" 

Scene 2 advances the action, as the King's guilt is made 
clear. Hamlet's character is shown in his talk with 
Horatio, and afterward to the Queen and others. 

Scene 3 advances the action and displays character in 
almost equal measure, when Hamlet has an opportunity 
to execute his vengeance, but turns away. 

Scene 4 contains more action than almost any previous 

scene. Hamlet kills Polonius, and wins the Queen to 

his side. 

Act IV 

Scene 1 hastens the action, as the King, learning of 
Polonius's death, decides to act at once. 

Scene 2 carries forward the action, as Hamlet is sum- 
moned to the King. 

Scene 3 continues the action, Hamlet being ordered to 
depart for England. These three scenes all deal with a 
side-action of the play, — the sending away of Hamlet. 

Scene 4 hastens the main action : the sight of the sol- 
diers spurs Hamlet on. 

Scene 5 deals with a side-action, — the madness of 
Ophelia and Laertes's rebellion. Both are results of Act 
III, Scene 4. 

Scene 6 advances the main action, telling of Hamlet's 
escape and return. 

Scene 7 also advances the action, as the King and 
Laertes plan the death of Hamlet. 



Sbakspere's "Hamlet" 87 



Act V 

Scene i. The first part is a relief scene, the humorous 
dialogue heightening, by contrast, what follows. The 
action advances, as Hamlet and Laertes are brought 
together. 

Scene 2 carries on the action by Hamlet's agreeing to 
the match ; then events follow each other rapidly, — the 
death of the Queen, of the King, of Laertes, and of 
Hamlet. 

{b) Hamlet wishes to accomplish the death of his 
uncle ; his motive is to avenge his father's murder. He 
is opposed by his own nature, his weakness of will, his 
fatal tendency to think instead of act. 

(V) The rising action begins in Act I, Scene 5. The 
turning-point is in Act III, Scene 3, where Hamlet lets 
slip the chance of killing the King. 

(d) The falling action is manifest in the close of Act 
III, Scene 5, where Hamlet appears willing to go to Eng- 
land, apparently forgetting all about his revenge. 

(e) Dramatic foreshadowing is seen in III, 4, 208, 
where we have a hint of the fate of Rosencrantz and 
Guildenstern ; and in V, 2, 220, where Hamlet's own 
death is foreshadowed in the words, 

But thou wouldst not think how ill's all here about my heart. 



88 Shahspere's "Hamlet" 

VII. Contrast 

(a) Contrast in character is shown between Hamlet 
and Laertes, — Hamlet thoughtful, slow to act ; Laertes 
impulsive, acting without reflection. There is contrast 
also between Hamlet and Fortinbras in activity. King 
Claudius is contrasted strongly with the former king. 
There is contrast between Hamlet as he appears here 
and as he had been formerly. Contrast in mood is found 
in Act V, Scene i, where the jesting of the gravediggers 
is followed by Ophelia's funeral. 

(b) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are characters so 
closely parallel that it is hardly possible to distinguish 
them. There is parallel in incident in the fact that both 
Hamlet and Laertes lose a father. 

VIII. Metre 
{a) Scansion of lines 120-130, Act III, Scene 4 : 

_ _|w_ I |^_|ww 

Do not forget : | this visitation 120 

w — |w I U \\J — |w \\J 

Is but to whet | thy almost blunted purpose. 

w \ \j \ \j w|v^ I w 

But, I look, I amazement on thy mother sits : 

I w I w|w ! \y 

O, I step between her | and her fighting soul : 

KJ 1 W I W 1 W I W 

Conceit in weakest bodies | strongest works : 

w I w I u 

Speak to her, | Hamlet. 



Sbakspere's "Hamlet" 89 

| w|w w I w 

How is it with you, | lady ? 125 

w_| _ _| y _ 
Alas, I how is'L with you, 

y I v> |w I w |uu 

That you do bend your eye on vacancy 

w I W I V I W I W 

And with the incorporal air | do hold discourse ? 

w| W I ^ I w I ^ 

Forth at your eyes | your spirits wildly peep ; 

w| W I W I W I KJ 

And, I as the sleeping soldiers | in the alarm 130 

The position of the caesura, marked thus | , is regular 
in the first two lines; in line 122 it is in and after the 
first foot; in line 123 it is in the first and in the third; 
in line 1 24 it is in the fourth foot, and so on. 

Trochaic feet are substituted in lines 123, 125, 126, 
etc. Spondees are found in lines 120, 123, 125, etc. 
Pyrrhic feet occur in lines 120, 122, 123, etc. The extra 
syllable is found in line 121. Line 125 is divided between 
two speakers, and, as often in such cases, has extra syl- 
lables. Line 120 is run-on, the others end-stopt. 

(£) Lyrics in the play are Ophelia's songs, in Act IV, 
Scene 5, and the snatches of song sung by the clown in 
Act V, Scene 1. 

(c) Prose is used in Act II, Scene 2, and elsewhere 
where Hamlet feigns madness ; it is used in Act III, 
Scene 2, for Hamlet's advice to the players, which, being 
purely didactic, is hardly suited for poetic form; when 



90 Shakspere's " Hamlet " 

Horatio enters, however, the dialogue is on a higher level, 
more emotional, and naturally rises to blank verse. The 
play within the play, Act III, Scene 2, is written in rime, 
to distinguish it from the play proper. 



IX. Style 

(a) The language of the play is not always clear. 
Sometimes the obscurity is due to obsolete words, some- 
times to the thought ; but the meaning is usually clear 
after a little study. 

(l>) Biblical allusions are found occasionally. In V, 
2, 231, the saying "there's a special providence in the 
fall of a sparrow " is a reference to Matt. x. 29 : "Are not 
two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall 
not fall on the ground without your Father." Other ex- 
amples are I, 2, 131, and V, 1, 40. 

(c) Examples of poetic diction are : " mine arm " ; 
" thrice " ; " oft " ; " hath," — all in II, 1, 90-1 10. 

(d) There is no marked use of dialect, though the 
opening of Act V, Scene 1, approaches it. 

(<?) Humor occurs in the dialogue between Hamlet and 
Polonius, Act II, Scene 2 ; the dialogue between Hamlet 
and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in Act III, Scene 2 ; 
and in the dialogue of the clowns in Act V, Scene 1. 
Here the humor serves to deepen the tragedy by contrast. 



Shakspere's " Hamlet " 91 

(/) Pathos is found in the appearance of Ophelia in 
a state of madness, in Act IV, Scene 5. 

(g) The style is not at the same level throughout, but 
rises and falls with the speakers, or the nature of the dis- 
course. In Act IV, Scene 4, the dialogue between Ham- 
let and the Captain is in a plain style, but Hamlet's 
soliloquy at the close is in a strain of exalted poetry. 



STUDY OF GEORGE ELIOT'S "SILAS 

MARNER" 

II. Title 
The title names the principal character. 

III. Purpose 

(a) To entertain, by presenting a faithful picture of 
human life, and to teach a moral lesson. 

(b) The lesson is that when men's hearts have been 
hardened by their wrongs, a little child is often the means 
of leading them back into natural human relations. It is 
stated at the close of Chapter XV. 

(c) The purpose is not made too prominent. 

IV. Plot 

(a) The story is interesting, and the interest does not 
flag. 

(b) It is probable. 

(c) The plot is complex. Silas and the poor folk of 
the village form one group, the Cass family another. The 
two groups are connected, first by Bob Cass, who robs 
Silas, then by Eppie. 

92 



George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 93 

(d) The movement is usual. It is slow in the begin- 
ning of the book, but quickens in telling how Silas was 
accused of theft. It is sometimes retarded by description, 
as at the beginning of Chapter III, and by discussion of 
character, as at the close of that chapter. 

(<?) The story progresses steadily from the beginning. 
There is a pause between Part I and Part II, but no 
break in the story. 

(/) The climax occurs where Silas brings Eppie into 
the ballroom, and Nancy asks Godfrey whose child it is. 
Minor climaxes are the theft of the gold and the finding 
of Bob Cass's body. 

(g) Suspense is used at the close of Chapter XII. 

(k) The story ends happily for the chief characters. 

(/) The best chapters are VI, XI, and XIV. 

V. Characters 

(a) The characters are numerous, yet they are kept 
distinct. 

(b) They are drawn from the middle and lower classes 
of society ; perhaps the author is most successful with the 
lower classes. 

(V) The women are more fully drawn than the men : 
Nancy is clearer to us than Godfrey. The author shows 
great power in depicting children. 



94 George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 

(d) The characters in general are lifelike. 

(e) They are not exceptional people. 
(/) There is no tendency to caricature. 
(g) None of the characters are historical. 

(/z) Both good and evil traits are shown in the same 
person, e.g. Godfrey Cass. 

(z) The characters are consistent. 

(/) Development is shown in the principal characters, 
notably in Silas Marner. At first trusting and affectionate, 
he becomes suspicious, selfish, miserly. Then by the 
coming of Eppie he is won back to his old self. The 
experiences he passes through are adequate to account 
for these changes. 

(/£) Both the dramatic and the analytic methods are 
used here : the dramatic in the interview between the two 
brothers in Chapter III ; the analytic in the comment 
upon Godfrey at the close of this chapter. 

(/) The novel has no hero, in the old-fashioned sense. 
The principal character is Silas Marner ; his chief trait is 
his simple devotion, first to his friend, then to Eppie. 
There is no heroine. 

(;;/) The traits of character the author seems to admire 
most are fidelity to duty, moral courage, and kindness. 

(n) There are no supernatural characters. 

(o) Women occupy almost as prominent a place as 
men. 



George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 95 

{p) The story does not tell about the final fortunes of 
the characters. 

VI. Classification 
It is a novel. 

VII. Description 

(a) There are some long descriptive passages in the 
story, but they are so mingled with narrative, as in the 
account of the arrival of the guests in Chapter XI, that 
the interest is sustained. 

(d) There is almost no description of nature ; touches 
are found in Chapters I and XVII. 

(c) There is little local color. 

(d) Description is used for dramatic background, when 
Silas appears at the ball with Eppie. 

(e) In describing people, the method used is that of 
selected details, as the description of Silas in Chapter I. 

(/) The author's strength lies in narration and char- 
acter drawing. 

VIII. Contrast 

Contrast in plot is found in Chapters XI and XII. 
Just when Godfrey is at the ball, happy in Nancy's com- 
pany, his wife is coming through the storm to expose and 
disgrace him. There is contrast in character between 
Silas Marner as a miser and Silas after the coming of 
Eppie. 



96 George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 

IX. Style 
A. Style in General 

i. The style is not strongly individual. 

2. Epigrams occur in the dialogue, e.g. "As I say, 
Mr. Have-your-own-way is the best husband, and the only 
one I'd ever promise to obey." (Chapter XI.) 

3. Humor, usually quiet, sometimes broad, is one of 
the strong points of the book. Good examples are found 
in Chapter VI. 

4. Pathos is found in the account of Silas's unjust 
condemnation (Chapter I), and in his grief at the loss 
of his gold (Chapter X). 

5. The style in general is direct, and at times ani- 
mated, as in the dialogue between the brothers in Chap- 
ter III. 

6. It has clearness, force, and beauty ; it can hardly be 
said that one quality is more marked than another. 

B. Diction 

1. There are a few unfamiliar words, such as "dis- 
train," "exiguity," "vicinage." 

2. Dialect is used, but it is not difficult to read. It 
makes the characters more real j they speak as you feel 
country people would speak. 

3. The conversation is natural. 



George Eliot's "Silas Marner" 97 

4. The diction, aside from the parts in dialogue, is 
elevated. 

X. Characteristics of Author 

Judging from this book alone, one might infer that the 
author was a person of high ideals, earnest, sympathetic, 
possessing a vivid imagination, a keen sense of humor, 
and having a tendency to philosophize. 



STUDY OF MACAULAY'S ESSAY ON 
SAMUEL JOHNSON 

II. Classification 

It is a narrative essay. 

III. Structure 

(a) There is no introduction : Macaulay takes up his 
subject in the first sentence. 

(b) The subject is the life, writings, and character of 
Samuel Johnson. The essay has unity, and there are no 
digressions. 

(V) The final -paragraph serves as a conclusion. It is 
a summary, giving a final estimate of Johnson's writings 
and character. 

IV. Essay as a Whole 
A. Narrative Essay 

i. The thought is easy to follow. The events are told 
in the order of time. 

2. There is little description of places. Lichfield, 
Johnson's birthplace, is merely named. His home is 
briefly described in % 40. 

98 



Macau I ay's Essay on Samuel Johnson 99 

3. The descriptions of persons are vivid and detailed. 
Examples are found in ^[ 1, 3, 5, 7. 

4. The author makes Johnson real to us : a good ex- 
ample is the closing paragraph. 

5. Macaulay perhaps dwells too much upon Johnson's 
shortcomings. This is seen by comparing this essay with 
Carlyle's essay on Bos well's Johnson. 

V. Style 
A. Style in General 

1. It possesses individuality. 

2. There is occasional quiet humor ; e.g. " Indeed, the 
great man was sometimes provoked into fits of passion, 
in which he said things that the small man, during a few 
hours, seriously resented." (^[ 39.) 

3. Pathos is found in %% 5 and 51. 

4. Irony is occasionally found, e.g. "... an old lady 
named Williams, whose chief recommendations were her 
blindness and her poverty." (^[ 40.) Ridicule is found 
in the description of Mrs. Johnson, % 7. 

5. Figures of speech are frequent, and add force to 
the style. Example : "... an absent awkward scholar, 
. . . who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like a cormo- 
rant." (% 19.) See other examples in ^Hf 22 and 43. 

6. The essay is marked by occasional exaggeration, 

L.ofC. 



100 Macaulqy's Essay on Samuel Johnson 

e.g. when he says of Johnson's Shakspere, :i lt would 
be difficult to name a more slovenly, a more worthless, 
edition of any great classic." (f 37.) Prejudice is seen 
in % 13, where Macaulay's Whig tendencies appear. 

7. The style is direct, animated, balanced, rhetorical, 
and clear. 

8. Clearness and force are the qualities most marked. 

B. Quotation and Allusion 

1 . There are but few quotations in the essay. Aside from 
Johnson himself, the only author quoted is Ossian. (f 41.) 

2. Allusion is found. In f 13, in the words, "such as 
inflamed the Capulets against the Montagues" there is 
an allusion to Romeo and Juliet. Other examples 
are found in %% 25 and 33. 

C. Paragraphs 

1. The paragraphs are long, averaging over two hun- 
dred words. 

2. They usually possess unity, though W 1, 38, and 40 
lack it. 

3. They are usually linked, e.g. •HIT 15 and 16. 

4. They follow in logical order. 

D. Sentences 
1. His sentences are always clear, and seldom involved 
in structure. 



Macaulay's Essay on Samuel Johnson 101 

2. They are rather short, averaging twenty-six words. 

3. They possess unity. 

4. They are generally loose, about one-third being 
periodic. 

5. Balanced sentences are used frequently, e.g. "Gar- 
rick now brought Irene out, with alterations sufficient to 
displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece 
pleasing to the audience." (^[ 22.) "The Dictionary, 
although it raised Johnson's fame, added nothing to his 
pecuniary means." (% 29.) 

6. Exclamation and interrogation are not found. 

7. Antithesis is very common ; the sentences quoted 
under No. 5 above are examples. Climax is infre- 
quently used. An example is found in % 13 : ". . . A 
writer who had taken but one-tenth part of the license 
allowed to him would have been pillored, mangled with 
the shears, whipped at the cart's tail, and flung into a 
noisome dungeon to die." 

8. Epigrams are rare. Example : " . . . the place of 
books in the public estimation is fixed not by what is 
written about them, but by what is written in them." % 42. 

E. Words 

1. There are almost no unusual words. " Sponging- 
house " is an example of a word now obsolete. 

2. The author's vocabulary is copious. 



102 Macaulay's Essay on Samuel Johnson 

3. He uses words precisely, as in IF 27, "a show of 
zealous and at the same time of delicate and judicious 
kindness." 

4. He prefers specific to general words, e.g., in % 16. 
" Richard Savage . . . , who had feasted among blue 
ribbons in St. James's Square, and had lain with fifty 
pounds' weight of irons on his legs in the condemned 
ward of Newgate." Another writer might have said that 
Savage had known both extremes of society. Mac- 
aulay gives specific details instead of a general statement. 

5. He does not use Biblical forms of speech. 

6. His diction is clear, simple, and idiomatic. 

VI. Memory Passages 

Paragraphs 5, 39, and 52 are worth memorizing as 
significant in subject-matter and as good examples of 
Macaulay's style. 

VII. Characteristics of Author 

From this essay, one would infer that the author was 
somewhat prejudiced (% 13), positive in his opinions 
(T[ 46), and that he was a man of much learning (%% 33, 
37)- 



STUDY OF WEBSTER'S BUNKER HILL 
MONUMENT ORATION 

II. Structure 

The parts of the oration are not clearly marked, yet 
the first five paragraphs may be considered introductory. 
The conclusion begins with H" 41. 

III. The Introduction 

This serves to arouse interest in the subject. 

IV. The Discussion 

(a) The central theme is twofold, liberty and union. 
It is set forth in ^[ 18, 20, 35, and 44. It is not intro- 
duced sooner because the first part of the oration would 
naturally deal with the occasion they met to celebrate. 

{b) Webster appeals chiefly to the emotions of his 
audience, arousing feelings of gratitude, of veneration, 
and of patriotism. Examples are found in ^[5, 14, 17,25. 

(c) He appeals to men on high grounds, as seen in 
the four concluding paragraphs. 

(d) There is a slight digression in % 37, where the 

103 



104 Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration 

orator turns to express sympathy for Greece. This is 
justified, as the struggle of Greece was for liberty. 

V. The Peroration 

(a) This serves to restate the two main themes of 
the oration — liberty and union — and makes a well- 
rounded close. 

(b) The style is somewhat more elevated than else- 
where. 

VI. Style 

A. Style in General 

i. It is not markedly individual. 

2. There is no humor, nor would it be expected on 
such an occasion. 

3. Pathos occurs in %% 13, 14. 

4. None of these qualities are found, nor would they 
be expected. 

5. Figures of speech are used frequently, and very 
effectively. Example : " A great chord of sentiment and 
feeling runs through two continents, and vibrates over 
both." (f 28.) A good example is also found in f 31. 

6. By none, in any marked degree. 

7. The style is smooth, orotund, direct, at times 
animated, as in % 1 2 ; balanced ; somewhat rhetorical ; 
clear; at times poetic, as in % 28 ; and always dignified. 



Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration 105 

8. Force and clearness are the qualities most marked. 
The sentences would deliver well; the longer ones are 
frequently rhythmical. 

B. Quotation and Allusion 

i. The author quotes from Milton, Horace, and Vergil. 
The quotations are accurate. 

2. Biblical allusion occurs in *f[ 40, in the phrase "at 
the mighty bidding of the voice of political liberty the 
waters of darkness retire." 

C. Paragraphs 

1. Webster's paragraphs are somewhat long, averaging 
two hundred words. 

2. They usually possess unity, though ^[21 lacks it. 

3. They are usually linked. Examples are %% 21-27. 

4. They are arranged in logical order. 

D. Sentences 

1 . They are always clear, and usually simple in structure. 

2. Some of the sentences are unusually long ; the aver- 
age length is thirty-one words. 

3. They have unity. 

4. Periodic sentences are frequent, nearly half being in 
that form. 

5. Balanced sentences are frequent, e.g. "Nearer to 



106 Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration 

our times, more closely connected with our fates, and 
therefore still more interesting to our feelings and affec- 
tions, is the settlement of our own country. . . ." (IF 4.) 

6. Exclamatory sentences are frequent, e.g. fH" 12 and 
14, where they are used to express heightened emotion. 
Interrogation is not used. 

7. Antithesis is occasionally found, e.g. "Death might 
come in honor on the field, it might come in disgrace 
on the scaffold." (% 19.) Climax is rather frequent. 
Good examples are %% 3, 7, and 31. 

8. Epigram is occasionally found : perhaps the best 
example is in the last paragraph of the speech : " Let our 
object be Our Country, Our Whole Country, and nothing 
but Our Country." 

E. Words 

1 . There are very few unusual words. " Entablatures " 
is an example. 

2. The author's vocabulary is copious. 

3. He uses words precisely. 

4. General terms are used rather than specific terms, 
e.g. in % 4 he uses general words instead of naming 
Plymouth and Jamestown. 

5. Biblical forms of speech are occasionally found, as 
" cloud of witnesses." (^[ 6.) 

6. The diction is clear, polished, and eloquent. 



Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration 107 

VII. Memory Passages 
Paragraphs 7 and 44 are recommended for memorizing. 

VIII. Characteristics of Author 

(a) Judging from this oration, one would infer that 
Webster was an earnest, broad-minded patriotic man. 

Earnestness is shown in the tone of the whole oration, 
particularly in the closing paragraphs. Broad-minded- 
ness is seen in^ffl 27-37 ; patriotism in^[ 18 and elsewhere. 

(b) He possessed a vivid imagination, as is shown by 
his constant use of imagery, and in the description of the 
battle in % 12. A philosophical turn of mind is shown 
in %% 7 and 28. 

{c) None of these characteristics are shown in any 
marked degree. 



APPENDIX A 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 

A Figure of Speech is a departure from a literal mode 
of making statements, in such a way as to call up in the 
reader's mind a figure or image. For example, if one 
says it is raining heavily, he states a fact literally; but if 
he says it is coming down in bucketfuls, he uses a figure 
of speech. 

The simplest form of figure is the Simile, in which a 
comparison is made between things of different kinds. 

Examples : 

Let thy voice rise like a fountain for me night and day. 
Unstable as water, thou shalt not excel. 

Note that not every comparison is a Simile. To say that 
a girl sings like Jenny Lind is not a Simile, because the 
comparison is between things of the same kind : one per- 
son's voice is compared to another's. But to say she sings 
like a nightingale is to use a Simile. When a Simile is 
continued through several lines, being expanded into a 
108 



Appendix A 109 

little picture in itself, it is called a Homeric Simile. An 
example is Milton's description of the shield of Satan : 

The broad circumference 
Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb 
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views 
At evening from the top of Fesole 
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, 
Rivers, or mountains in her spotty globe. 

— Paradise Lost, I, 286. 

This form of Simile receives its name from its use by 
Homer, and has been a favorite in epic poetry. 

Closely allied to the Simile is the Metaphor, or implied 
Simile. If I say, " You should hear that girl sing ; she is 
a perfect nightingale," I do not compare her to a nightin- 
gale, but call her one. The likeness is taken for granted, 
and the name of one object is applied to the other. 
Examples of Metaphor : 

Talent is a cistern, genius is a fountain. 

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some 
few to be chewed and digested. 

When the Metaphor attributes life to some inanimate 
object, or to an abstract idea, the figure is called Personi- 
fication. Examples : 

The Earth groaned beneath her load. 
Night dropped her sable curtain down. 



110 Appendix A 

The Simile, Metaphor, and Personification are all 
founded on some likeness between objects. In the 
Metonymy there is no likeness, but the name of one 
object is put for another that is closely connected with 
it. If I say, " Beware of the bottle," every one under- 
stands that I mean liquor. The word bottle suggests 
liquor, because the two things are closely connected. 
Metonymy, then, is a figure of speech in which, instead 
of naming an object, we name something closely related 
to it, which suggests it. Examples : 

Who steals my purse steals trash. 
He was a man of sixty winters. 

The Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which the 
absent are addressed as present, or inanimate objects as 
if animate and present. Examples : 

Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour. 

With how sad steps, O Moon, thou climb'st the sky. 

The Apostrophe is often combined with Personification, 
as in the last example. 



APPENDIX B 

VERSIFICATION 

I. Rime 
Rime is a correspondence of sound at the ends of 
lines. When a single syllable in each line corresponds, 
the rime is masculine, as : 

Wilt thou seal up the avenues of ill? 
Pay every debt as if God wrote the bill. 

— Emerson. 

When two syllables in each line correspond in sound, 
the rime is feminine, as : 

If eyes were made for seeing, 

Then beauty is its own excuse for being. 

— Emerson. 

The terms single and double rime are sometimes used 
instead of masculine and feminine. 

Triple rime is less common. It is found in alternate 
lines of Hood's " Bridge of Sighs " : 
Take her up tenderly, 
Lift her with care ; 
Fashioned so slenderly, 
Young, and so fair ! 



112 Appendix B 

Rime sometimes occurs within the line. This is called 
internal rime. An example is seen in the third line below. 

They reel, they roll, in clanging lists, 
And when the tide of combat stands, 

Perfume and flowers fall in showers, 
That lightly rain from ladies' hands. 

— Tennyson. 

II. Stanza Forms 

By means of rime single lines are grouped into stanzas. 
The simplest form is the couplet, two lines bound together 
by rime, illustrated by quotations from Emerson above. 
The couplet, however, is not regarded as a stanza. 

The stanza of three lines, called the triplet, is not com- 
mon. Example : 

Greatly begin ! though thou have time 

But for a line, be that sublime, — 

Not failure, but low aim, is crime. — Lowell. 

The stanza of four lines, called the quatrain, is the one 
most commonly used. It may rime in various ways. The 
rime-order may be designated by letters, using the same 
letter to designate lines that rime together, and the letter 
x for lines that do not rime. Thus : 

I give you the end of a golden string, (x) 

Only wind it into a ball, (a) 
It will lead you in at Heaven's gate, (x) 

Built in Jerusalem wall, (a) — William Blake. 



Appendix B 1 13 

Another common form of four-line stanza is a b a b, as : 

I find earth not gray, but rosy, (a) 
Heaven not grim, but fair of hue. {b) 

Do I stoop ? I pluck a posy, (a) 

Do I stand and stare? All's blue, (b) 

— Robert Browning. 

Less common is the form abba, used in Tennyson's 
In Memoriam, as : 

Thou wilt not leave us in the dust ; 

Thou madest man, he knows not why; 

He thinks he was not made to die ; 
And thou hast made him : thou art just. 

The form a a x a is found in Edward Fitzgerald's 
version of Omar Khayyam, as : 

I sometimes think that never blows so red 
The rose as where some buried Caesar bled ; 

That every hyacinth the garden wears 
Dropp'd in her lap from some once lovely head. 

The chief stanzas of English verse, besides the ones 
enumerated, are Rime Royal, consisting of seven lines, 
riming ab ab bcc, used in Chaucer's " Prioresses Tale," 
and the Spenserian stanza of nine lines, riming ab ab be 
bcc, eight lines in iambic pentameter, the ninth an Alex- 
andrine. This is used in Spenser's Faerie Queene. 

The Sonnet consists of fourteen lines. The first eight, 
called the octave, usually rime abba abba; the last six, 



114 Appendix B 

the sestet, may rime in various ways, but seldom in 
couplets. The principal sonnet-forms are the Italian, 
riming abba abba abc abc ; the Shaksperian, ab ab cd cd 
efefgg; and the Contemporary, abba abba cdd cdc. The 
metre of the sonnet is always iambic pentameter. 

III. Metre 

Poetry is distinguished from prose by having the words 
arranged in such a way as to cause a regular recurrence 
of accented syllables. Read these lines aloud : 

Serene I fold my hands and wait, 
Nor care for wind or tide or sea; 

I rave no more 'gainst time or fate, 
For lo, my own shall come to me. 

— John Burroughs. 

Without thinking of it, you accent the last syllable of 
"serene," and the words "fold," "hands," and "wait," 
making four accents in that line, with an unaccented 
syllable between each. In the second line you accent 
" care," " wind," " tide," and " sea," — again four accents, 
separated by four unaccented syllables ; and so with the 
other lines. If we mark the accented syllables thus — 
and the unaccented ones thus ^, we have : 

W KJ \J W 

Serene I fold my hands and wait, 

\j \j w w 

Nor care for wind or tide or sea: 



Appendix B 115 

The syllables seem to fall naturally into groups of two, 
each group consisting of an unaccented followed by an 
accented syllable. These groups are called feet, and this 
particular kind of foot is called an iambus, or an iambic 
foot. 

In the following lines the metre is somewhat different : 

w |w \-J I w w |w w 

His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine. 

The first foot is iambic, but the others have two un- 
accented syllables, thus ^ w — . This foot is called 
an anapest. Anapestic feet and iambic feet are often 
found mingled in one poem ; in naming the metre we 
give only the foot that predominates. 

Another form of metre is : 

— w | — ^ I — ^ I — ^ 

Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures, 

w | \j | w| w 

While the landscape round it measures. 

This foot, — ^, is called a trochee, and such verse 
trochaic verse. It is just the reverse of the iambic foot. 
Trochaic and iambic feet are sometimes mingled, as in 
Milton's " L' Allegro " just quoted. 

Resembling the trochee is the dactyl, — s ~' ^, found 
in Evangeline. 

W \J | \J \J | \J \j I w 

Black were her eyes as the berry that grows on 

W | W U I KJ 

the thorn by the wayside. 



116 Appendix B 

Trochaic feet are often found in dactylic verse. In 
the dactylic hexameter the sixth foot, as above, is regu- 
larly a foot of two syllables, either spondee or dactyl. 

Occasionally a foot is found which contains two un- 
accented syllables, as the third foot below : 

\J | u I U \J \ \J |w 

The present money to discharge the Jew. 

Such a foot is called pyrrhic. Another occasional form 
is the spondee, made up of two syllables, both of which 
are accented. The second foot below is an example : — 

w I I w ! w I v 

The whitewashed walls, the nicely-sanded floor. 

Pyrrhic and Spondaic feet are found only interspersed 
with other feet. They are used to vary the movement 
of the verse. Another method of varying the effect is by 
the use of the Caesura. This is a pause within the line, 
usually marked by punctuation, though not always. In 
the opening lines of Paradise Lost the Caesuras are as 
follows : 

Of man's first disobedience, | and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, | whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, | and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, | till one greater Man 
Restore us, | and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, | Heavenly Muse, | that, | on the secret top 
Of Oreb, | or of Sinai, | did'st inspire 
That shepherd . c . . . 



Appendix B 117 

The Caesura is best observed by reading the lines 
aloud. It may occur in any place in the line. In the first 
line above, it is in the fourth foot ; in the next line, after 
the third foot ; in the fourth line it is in the third foot ; 
in the fifth line, it is in the second foot. The poet pur- 
posely varies the position of the pause to vary the music 
of his lines. A line may have two or more Caesuras, as 
the sixth line above. Or there may be a line without a 
Caesura, as 

• Too well I see and rue the dire event. 

But the absence of punctuation does not always indicate 
that there is no Caesura. In the following line there is no 
punctuation, yet it is impossible to read it without paus- 
ing after " destruction " : — 

In horrible destruction | laid thus low. 

Further, the music of the verse may be varied by the 
alternation of end-stopt and run-on lines. An end-stopt 
line is one with a pause at the end, usually indicated by 
some mark of punctuation. A run-on line is read with 
the following line with but the slightest pause, merely 
sufficient to mark the line-unit. In the passage from 
Pa -adise Lost quoted above, the first two lines are run- 
on, the third end-stopt, the fourth run-on, and so on. 

In giving the metre of a poem it is customary to indi- 
cate not only the kind of feet, but the number in a line. 



118 Appendix B 

A line of one foot is called a monometer line ; of two feet 
dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, 
pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, heptameter. 
In order, then, to describe fully the metrical structure of 
a poem, it is necessary to state (a) the kind of feet, (b) 
the number of feet in a line, and (V) the rime-order. 
Thus Gray's " Elegy " would be described metrically as 
a poem in iambic pentameter, riming abab. 



Our Own Publications 



Cloth unless otherwise stated 




31-33-35 West Fifteenth Street 

Between Fifth and Sixth Avenues 

Sckoolbooks of all publishers at one store 



Songs of All the Colleges, Words and music throughout. 
A welco?ne gift in any home ! Everyone likes a college 
song, and this book is an ideal gift to place on the 
piano for one's friends to enjoy, even though one 
sings not himself . Attractive and durable cloth. $1*50. 
New edition with 104 songs added for 67 other colleges. Over 
seventy college presidents have purchased this volume to have 
at their homes, for the students on social occasions. Ten editions 
have gone into many thousands of homes. If you have a piano 
but do not play, the pianola and other "piano-players" will 
play many of these songs for you and your friends to sing. 

Compiled by college men, endorsed by college 
presidents, 'rah-'rah'd by college students, brothered 
by college alumni, sistered by college alumnae, adopted 
and programed by college glee clubs everywhere ; 
by local clubs, choral societies, and singing classes. 
Contains all the dear old familiar songs, as well as 
the popular new songs typical of alma mater in 
colleges east, west, south, north. Many 
old favorite tunes with new catchy, up- 
to-date words — serious, sentimental, 
humorous ; also the 'rah, Wah kind. 
Yale men know, and the New Haven Union says : 
"The question of what in the world to give a 
friend is solved by the publication of songs of 
all the colleges, which is suitable alike for 
the collegian of the past, for the student of the 
present, and for the boy (or girl) with hopes, 
also for the music-loving sister and a fellow's best 
girl. Another college paper: '•''They ring 
true ! '• Says the Principal of a famous private 
school: " It incites to college." 

Songs of the "Western Colleges. Durable cloth binding. $ J. 25. 

Songs of the Eastern Colleges. Novel, durable cloth, $\25. 
These two books present an ideally complete por- 
trayal of the musical and social side, the joyous side, 
of the student life in our Western and Eastern 
colleges respectively. Plenty of the old favorites of 
all colleges, while crowded with the new songs. 

To own all three above books is to possess the most complete, 
the most adequate illustration ever attempted of this phase of the 
genius, the spirit of Young America. 

New Songs for College Glee Clubs, Paper. 50 cents. 
Twenty humorous hits, besides others, sentimental and 
serious. Not a selection but has been sung by some glee 
club locally to the delight of an "encoring audience." 
Glee Club leaders will appreciate a collection every piece in 
which, by the severe test of both rehearsal and concert, is right 
— the musical notation, the harmony of the voice parts, the 
syllabification, the rhythm, the rhyme, the instrumentation, and 
last, but not least with audiences,the catchonativeness. 




How to Attract and Hold an Audience. Every clergy- 
man, every lawyer, every teacher, every manor woman 
occupying an official position, every citizen and every 
youth who is likely ever to have occasion in committee, 
or in public, to enlist the interest, to attract and hold 
the attention of one or more hearers, and convince 

them even- person who ever has to, or is likely to 

have to "speak" to one or more listeners will find in 
our new book a clear, concise, complete handbook 
which will enable him to succeed! $1.00 

Thorough, concise, methodical, replete with common sen^e, 
complete— these words describe fitly this new book; and in his 
logical method, in the crystal-like lucidity of his style, in his 
forceful, incisive, penetrating mastery of this subject, the author 
has at one bound plac, d himself on a plane with the very ablest 
teacher-authors of his day. 

Commencement Parts. "Efforts" for all occasions 
Orations, addresses, valedictories, salutatories, class 
poems, class mottoes, after-dinner 
speeches, flag days, national holidays, 
class-day exercises. Models for every 
possible occasion in high-school and 
college career, every one of the " ef- 
forts "' being what some fellow has 
stood on his feet and actually delivered 
on a similar occasion — not what the 
compiler would say if he should 
happen to be called on for an ivy 
song or a response to a toast, or what 
not ; but what the fellow himself, when his turn 
came, did say ! Invaluable, indispensable to those 
preparing any kind of "effort." Unique. $1,50. 

New Dialogues and Plays. Life-like episodes ironi 
popular authors like Stevenson, Crawford, Maik 
Twain, Dickens, Scott, in the form of simple plays, 
with every detail explained as to dress, make-up, uten- 
sils, furniture, etc. For schoolroom or parlor. $1.50. 

A Southern Speaker. Selections from the orations, ad- 
dresses, and writings of the best known Southern ora- 
tors, Southern statesmen and authors, together with 
extracts from the rarest gems of literature. $1.00. 

Reading. A "Well-Planned Course. $1.00 By Caroline 
B. Le Row, compiler of " Pieces for Every Occasion." 
There has long been wanted a book of new selections 
for classes in reading, with lessons on the art of read- 
ing. Miss Le Row has designed to satisfy that desire. 





College Men's 3-Minute Declamations. Up-to-date 
selections from live men like Chauneey 
Depew, Hewitt, Gladstone, Cleveland, 
Presidents Eliot (Harvard), and Carter 
(Williams), and others. New material * 
with vitality in it for prize speaking. 
Very popular. Eighth edition. $J.0Q. 

College Maids' 3-Minute Readings, 
Up-to-date recitations from living m. n 
and women. On the plan of the popular 
College Men's 3-minute Declamations, and 
on the same high plane. 4th edition. $J.00«. 

Pieces for Prize Speaking Contests. Volume I. Over 
one hundred pieces that have actually taken prizes \\\ 
prize speaking contests. Successful. $i,25. 
Pieces for Prize Speaking Contests. Volume II. $1.25. 
Pieces for Every Occasion. Including 
"special da) s." Something new, $J.25. 
Handy Pieces to Speak. Single pieces and 
dialogues. Primary, 20 cts. ; Inter- 
mediate, 20 cts.; Advanced, 20 cts. 
All three for 50 cts. On separate 
cards. 108 selections in all. 
Acme Declamation Book. Single pieces 
and dialogues. For boys and girls of 
all ages ; all occasions. Paper, 30 cts. ; 
cloth, 50 cts. Many editions sold. 
Pros and Cms. Complete debates of the affirmative 
and negative of the stirring questions of 
the day. A decided hit. This is another 
book invaluable not only to high-school 
and college students, but also to every 
other person who aspires to converse 
engagingly on the topics of the day. Our 
foreign policy, the currency, the tariff, 
immigration, high license, woman suffrage, 
penny postage, transportation, trusts, 
department stores, municipal ownership of 
franchises, government control of telegraph. 
Both sides of these and many other questions com- 
pletely debated. Directions for organizing and 
conducting debating society, with bv-lazvs and parlia- 
mentary rules. No other book like it. $J.50« 




?! 


1 


pros! 

AND 

C0N5 


; 


ggj 


^J 




— 



How to Use the Voice in Reading and Speaking. By 
Ed. Amherst Ott, head of the School of Oratory. 
Drake University. Suitable for class work. $1.25. 
How to Gesture. By Professor Ott. $1.00. 
Ten Weeks* Course in Elocution. 'With numerous 
selections for illustration and practice. Simple and 
practical. For classes, or self-teaching. $1.25. 
Fenno's Science and Art of Elocution. Standard. $1.25. 
New Parliamentary Manual. By Edmond Palmer, A. B. , 
instructor in Civics and Economics in the Engle- 
wood High School, Chicago. A manual designed to 
be used as a text book in high schools and colleges. 
The special feature of this book is the new and 
original table enabling one to decide at a glance any 
question arising on the subject of parliamentary 
procedure. 75 cents. Wholly new. 
How to Organize and Conduct a Meeting. 75 cents. 
Likes and Opposites. Synonyms and Opposites. To 
have at one's command a variety of equivalent words 
and their opposites is to possess an incalculable ad- 
vantage both in writing and speaking. 50 cents. 
r etter Writing. Rules for co-rect correspondence. 75 cts. 
Punctuation Mastered in Twelve Lessons. 

Paper. 25 cents. 
Punctuation. Hinds & Noble's new Man- 
ual. Paper, 25 cents. 
New Speller. Hinds & Noble's new 
graded list of 5,000 words which one 
mustknow how to spell, Useful. 25c. 
Bad English. Humiliating " breaks " cor- 
rected. Paper. 30 cents. 
Common Errors in Writing and Speaking. 
50 cents. 

Composition Writing Made Easy. Very successful. 
Five grades, viz. : A, B, C, D, E, 20 cents each. All 
five for 75 cents. Arranged on separate cards. 
1000 Composition Subjects. Paper. 25 cents. 
Orthography and Orthoepy. By Isaac W. Clinger. 

Adapted for class use. Boards. 50 cents. 
Complete Class Record-Book. Hinds & Noble's new 
register, with several new and very useful features. 
Twenty weeks. Arranged by John J. Quinn. 50cents. 
Smith's New Class Register. Long the Standard. 50 cts. 
Smith's New Astronomy. Illus. Quarto. Boards, 90 cts t 
Coon's Civil Government. For N. Y. State. 75 cents- 




What Shall I Do? 50 profitable occupations. $J.00. 

Going to College. By Professor Barbe of West Virginia 
University. Says The Evangelist'. "Glows with 
the enthusiasm of a high ideal. We wish it could be 
in the library of every high school, seminary, and 
academy in the land." 50 cents. 

The Scholars* A B C of Electricity. Can you explain even 
the simple phenomena about electricity ? Do you 
hate to appear quite ignorant of the very simplest 
facts regarding the telephone, the telegraph, the 
electric light, the dynamo, the trolley? This little 
book states the facts in clear words devoid of tech- 
nicalities, and in entertaining style. No need to study 
or commit to memory ; just to read it is to under- 
stand. 50 cents. 

Lessons on Practical Subjects. 50 cents. Nearly ready. 

Who's Who in Mythology? 1000 mythological char- 
acters briefly described. Identifies and locates 
instanter every god and goddess, hero and myth that 
are likely to be broached either in conversation 
sermon, song, drama, painting or statuary. 75 cents. 

Who's Who in History? 1000 classical characters and 
allusions briefly explained. Locates the places, 
identifies the persons, describes the things, which are 
constantly alluded to in literature, on the rostrum and 
platform, in sermons, in paintings, in sculpture and 
in conversation. 75 cents. 

How to Study Literature. A novel, a poem, a history, a 
biography, a drama, an oration, a sermon, or any 
other literary production, if read or studied as this book 
tells one how to read and study, becomes a subject 
which one can discuss or write about in a thoroughly 
intelligent and comprehensive way. Enables you to 
talk about a book as if you had really sized it up 
completely. Just the thing for literary societies, 
reading circles, and the teacher and the pupil ; also 
for any one who desires to retain a symmetrical im- 
pression of the books he reads. 75 cents. 

Lessons on Manners. Mrs. Dewey. 75 cents. 

Lessons on Morals. Mrs. Dewey. 75 cents. 

Ethics for High Schools and Academies. $1.00. 

Character Building. Inspiring suggestions. $1.00. 

Bookkeeping Blanks at jo cents per set. Five blank books 
to the set. Adapted for use with any text-book, 
— Elem., Practical, or Com. School. Used everywhere. 

Constitution of U. S. in Eng., Germ., Fr. Paper, 50 cts. 



The Foundations of Education. By Dr. Levi Seeley, 
author of " History of Education." In this book the 
author, an able teacher and superintendent of long 
experience, recounts from his experience for the bene- 
fit of teachers, those very many things, the avoiding 
which or the doing which, as the case may be, makes 
for failure or success accordingly. An inspiration — 
not only to the teacher, but also to the parent who 
reads it. To possess this book is like having a friend 
and counsellor always at one's elbow. $1.00. 

Best Methods of Teaching in Country Schools. $1.25. 

200 Lessons Outlined in Arithmetic, Geography, 
Grammar, United States History, Physiology. A 
splendid help for busy, time-pressed teachers. $1.25. 

Mistakes of Teachers corrected by common sense (the 
famous Preston Papers). Solves difficulties not 
explained in textbooks, which daily 
perplex the conscientious teacher. 
New Enlarged Edition — third large 
printing. A veritable hit. $1.00. 

E ages Theory and P. actice of Teaching. 
With Questions and Answers. Paper, 
50c. Cloth, $1. The teachers' standby. 

Roark's Outline of Pedagogy. A Working 
Manual. Aptly and briefly described 
as an indispensable tool for " teachers 
in the trenches." Interleaved for noUs. 75 cents. 

Gordy's New Pedagogy. By the Author of Gordy's 
New Psychology, $1.00. In preparation. 

Gordy's New Psychology. Familiar talks to teachers 
and parents on how to observe the child-mind. 
Questions on each Lesson. $1.25. 37th thousand! 

Stout's Manual of Psychology. Introduced in its first 
year into more than fourscore of colleges and 
universities in this country and in Canada. $1.50. 

The Perceptionalist. Hamilton's Mental Science. By 
special typographical arrangement adapted to either 
a longer or shorter course. $2.00. 

Mackenzie's Manual of Ethics. The most successful 
text-book on ethics ever published. Adopted and 
used in over two hundred Colleges, Universities and 
Normal Schools. New, Fourth Edition. $1,50. 

Continental Copy Books. Numbers 1 to 7. 75 cents dozen. 





How to Become Quick at Figures. Enlarged Edition. $1.00. 

How to Prepare for a Civil Service Examination, with 
recent Examination Questions and 
the Answers. 560 pages. $2.00. 
Abridged Edition, without Questions 
and Answers. 50 cents. 

Craig's Common School Questions with 

Answers. Enlarged Edition. $1.50. 

Henry's High School Questions, with 
Answers. $1.50. 

Sherrill's New Normal Questions, with 
Answers. $1.50. 

Quuzism and Its Key. (South wick.) $1.00. 

1001 Questions and Answers Series. Eleven Volumes % 
until recently published by the b. b. CO., each 50 cts. 
Theory and Practice Teaching. Revised. 
United States History. Revised. 
General History. Revised. 
Geography. Revised. 
English Grammar. Revised. 
Reading and Orthography. Revised, 
Physiology and Hygiene. Revised. 
Botany. New. 
Natural Philosophy. New. 
Arithmetic. Revised. 
Text Examples in Arith., with Answers. Revised. 

Moritz's 1000 Questions. For Entrance Examinations. 
N. Y. High Schools, Normal College, College of City 
of N. Y., St. Francis Xavier College, West Point, 
Annapolis, and Civil Service. Paper. 30 cents. 

Answers to same. Paper. 50 cents. 

Recent Entrance Examination Questions. For the New 
York Normal College, the College of the City of 
New York, St. Francis Xavier College, Columbia 
College, the High Schools, Regents' Examinations, 
"West Point, Annapolis, the Civil Service. Paper. 30 cts. 

Answers to Same. Paper. 50 cents. 

20th Century Educational Problems. By President Millar 
of Hendrix College. A timely discussion. $1.00, 



Interlinear Translations. Classic Series. Cloth. 20 vol- 
umes. $1.50 per volume 

Cesar's Gallic War. Five Books. 

Same, Book I, Completely Pars'd. See below. 

Cicero's Orations. Enlarged Edition. 

Same, Oration I, Completely Parsed. See below. 
Same, Oration II, Completely Parsed. See below. 

Cicero on Old Age and Friendship. 

Cornelius Nepos. 

Horace, complete. 

Livy. Books XXI and XXII. 

Ovid's Metamorphoses, complete. 

Sallust's Catiline, and jugurthine War. 

Virgil's Tmeid. First Six Books, Revised* 

Virgil's .Eneid. Complete, the Twelve Books. 

jEneid, Book I, Complete'y Parsed, Scanned. See belorv. 
Virgil's Eclogues, Georgics ana Last 6 Books JEneid. 
Xenophon's Anabasis. 
Xenophon's Memorabilia. 
Homer's Iliad, First Six Books, Revised. 
Demosthenes On The Crown. 

New Testament, Without Xotes; complete ed. below. 
Completely Parsed Caesar. Book 1. Each page bears 
interlinear translation, literal translation, parsing, 
grammatical references. The long vowels axe. indicated 
throughout, both in the Latin text part, and in the 
parsing. All at a glance without turning a leaf. An 
ideal aid, compact, complete, unique. $1.50. 
Completely Scanned-Parsed Vergil's Aeneid Bk. 1. Iden- 
tical in plan, scope, and arrangement with the Farsed 
Ccesar, while being scanned is well as parsed. $1.50. 
Completely Parsed Cicero, I. The First Oration against 
Catiline. Same plan and scope as Parsed C&sar. $1.50. 
Completely Parsed Cicero, II. The Second Oration against 

Catiline. Same plan as above. $1.50. 
Completely Parsed Xenophon's Anab., I. $1.50. In prep. 
New Testament with Notes, and Lexicon. Interlinear 
Greek-Eng., with King James Version in the margins. 
New edition with finely discriminating presentation 
of the Synonyms of the Greek Testament. Cloth, $4 ; 
half leather, $5 ; Divinity Circuity $6. 
Old Testament, Vol. 1. Genesis and Exodus. Interlinear 
Hebrew-Eng., with Notes ; King James Version and 
Revised Version in margins ; and with Hebrew 
alphabet and Tables of the Hebrew verb. Cloth, #4 : 
half leather, $5 ; Divinity Circuit, $6.oo» 
Hinds & Noble's Hebrew Grammar. $1.00. 



Handy Literal Translations, Cloth, pocket, 50 cts. per vol. 

" To one -who is reading the Classics, a literal 
translation is a convenient and legitimate help: 
every well informed person will read the Classics 
either in the original or in a translation. 

Eighty-nine volumes, viz. : {I titer linear s other page). 

Caesar's Gallic War. The Seven Books. ( For Book I trans- 
lated and completely parsed, see other page.) 

Caesar's Civil'War. 

Catullus. 

Cicero's Brutus. 

Cicero's Defense of Roscius. 

Cicero De Officiis. 

Cicero On Old Age and Friendship. 

Cicero On Oratory. 

Cicero On The Nature of The Gods. 

Cicero's Orations. Four 7>s. Catiline, and others. (For 
Orations I, II. translated and parsed, see other page.) 

Cicero's Select Letters. 

Cicero's Tusculan Disputations. 

Cornelius Nepos, complete. 

Eutropius. 

Horace, complete. 

Juvenal's Satires, complete, 

Livy, Books I and II. 

Livy, Books XXI and XXII. 

Lucretius, in preparation 

Martial's Epigrams {paper). 

Ovid's Metamorphoses, complete in two volumes. 

Phaedrus' Fables. 

Plautus' Captivi, and Mostellaria. 

Plautus' Pseudolus, and Miles Gloriosus. 

Plautus' Trinummus, and Menaechmi. 

Pliny's Select Letters, complete in two volumes. 

Quintilian, Books X and XII. 

Roman Life in Latin Prose and Verse. 

Sallust's Catiline, and the Jugurthine War. 

Seneca on Benefits. 

Tacitus' Annals, the First Six Books. 

Tacitus' Germany and Agricola, 

Tacitus' On Oratory. 

Terence: Andria, Adelphi and Phormio. 

Terence: Heautontimorumeno .. 

Virgil's jEneid, the First Si.v Books. (For Book I translated 
and completely scanned and parsed, see other page.) 

Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics. 

Viri Romae. 

^Eschines Against Ctesiphon. 

^Eschylus' Prometheus Bound ; Seven vs. Thebes. 

^Eschylus' Agamemnon. 

Aristophanes' Clouds. 

Aristophanes' Birds, and Frogs. 

Demosthenes' On The Crown. 

Demosthenes' Olynthiacs and Philippics. 

Euripides' Alcestis, and Electra. 

Euripides' Bacchantes, and Hercules Furens. 

Euripides' Hecuba and Andromache. 

Euripides' Iphigenia In Aulis, In Tauris. 

Euripides' Medea. 

Herodotus, Books VI and VII. 

Herodotus, Book VIII. 



Homer's Iliad, the First Six Books. 
Homer's Odyssey, the First Twelve Books. 
Isocrates' Panegyric, in preparation. 
Lucian's Select Dialogues, two volumes. 
Lysias' Orations. The only Translation extant. 
Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaido. 
Plato's Gorgias. 
Plato's Laches {paper). 
Plato's Protagoras, and Euthyphron. 
Plato's Republic. 

Sophocles' GEdipus Tyrannus, Electra, and Antigone. 
Sophocles' QEdipus Coloneus. 
Thucydides, complete in two 7'olumes. 

Xenophon's Anabasis, the First Four Books. (Book /, trans- 
lated and completely parsed, in prep. See other page.) 
Xenophon's Cyropadia, complete in two volumes. 
Xenophon's Hellenica, and Symposium (The Banquet). 
Xenophon's Memorabilia, co?nplete. 



Freytag's Die Journalisten (paper). 
Goethe's Egmont. 
Goethe's Faust. 

Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea. 
Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris. 
Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm. 
Lessing's Nathan The Wise. 
Lessing's Emilia Galotti. 

• Schiller's Ballads. 
Schiller's Der Neffe als Onkel. 
Schiller's Maid of Orleans. 
Schiller's Maria Stuart. 
Schiller's Wallenstein's Death. 
Schiller's William Tell. 

• Corneille's The Cid. 

Feuillet's Romance of a Poor Young Man. 
Racine's Athalie. 

C jmpletely Parsed Caesar, Vergil, Cicero, etc*, other page. 

Shortest Road to Caesar. Successful elem'y method. 75c. 

Caesar's Idioms. Complete, with Eng. equivalents. Pap. 25c. 

Cicero's Idioms. As found in " Cicero's Orations." Pap. 25c. 

Beginners' Latin Book. Hoch & Bert's. Many improve- 
ments over other books for beginners, one being the 
diagram to illustrate conditional sentences. $1.00. 

Beginners' Greek Book. I. P. Frisbee. Complete in 
itself. Applies the principles of correct teaching to 
the preparation (in one year) for reading Xenophon's 
Anabasis. Fully tested in many schools. $1.25. 

German Texts. With footnotes and Vocabulary: 
W. Tell, Jungfrau v. Orleans, Maria Stuart, Neffe als 
Onkel, Minna v. Barnhelm, Nathan der Weise, Emilia 
Galotti, Herm. und Dorothea. Eight vols. 50cts,^#^. 

Ideophonic Texts. Wilhelm Tell, Act I. $1,00. 



Dictionaries t The Classic Series. Half morocco. Espe- 
cially planned for students and teachers in colleges 
and high schools. Up to the times in point of 
contents, authoritative while modern as regards 
scholarship, instantly accessible in respect to arrange- 
ment, of best quality as to typography and paper, 
and in a binding at once elegant and durable. 8x5^ in. 
French-English and English-French Dictionary, 

1 122 pages. $2.00. 
German-English and English-German Dictionary, 

1 1 12 pages. $2.00. 
Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary, 941 

pages. $2.00. 
Greek-English and English-Greek Dictionary, 

1056 pages. $2.00. 
English-Greek Dictionary. Price $1.00. 
Dictionaries : The Handy Series. "Scholarship 
modern and accurate; and really beautiful print." 
Pocket Edition. 

Spanish-English and Eng.-Span., 474 pages. $1.00. 

Italian-English and Eng.-Ital., 428 pages. $1.00. 

New Testament Lexicon. Entirely new and 

up-to-date. With a fine presentation of the 

Synonyms of the Greek Testament. $1.00. 

Liddell & Scott's Abridged Greek Lexicon. With new 

Appendix of Proper and Geographical names. $1.20. 

White's Latin-English Dictionary. $1.20. 

White's English-Latin Dictionary. $1.20. 

White's Latin-English and Eng.-Lat. Dictionary. $2.25. 

Casserly's Latin Prosody. New Edition. 60 cents. 

Brooks' Historia Sacra, with First Latin Lessons. Revised, 

with Vocabulary, Price 50 cts. This justly popular 

volume besides the Epitome Historise Sacrae, the 

Notes, and the Vocabulary, contains 100 pages of 

elementary Latin Lessons, enabling the teacher to 

carry the pupil quickly and in easy steps over the 

ground preparatory to the Epitome Historia? Sacrse. 

Brooks' First Lessons in Greek, with Lexicon. Revised 

Edition. Covering sufficient ground to enable the 

student to read the New Testament in the Greek. 50c. 

Brooks' New Virgil's Aeneid, with Lexicon. Revised. 

Notes, Metrical Index, Map. With Questions. $1.50. 

Brooks' New Ovid's Metamorphoses, with Lexicon. 

Expurgated for mixed classes. With Questions. $1.50. 



OCT 15 J902 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Sept. 2007 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-2111 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



©1 



021 161 216 2 




